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Author: 


Hooper,  Luther 


Title: 

Silk,  its  production  and 
manufacture 

Place: 

New  York 

Date: 

1919 


MASTER   NEGATIVE   # 


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Hooper,  Luther. 

...  Silk;  its  production  and  manufacture,  by  Luther  Hooper. 
I^ndon,  New  York  (etc.,  Sir  I.  Pitman  &  sons,  ltd.  [1919?] 

vill,  126  p.    col.  front.,  lllus.    18i«      (Pitman's  common  commodities 
of  commerce) 


1.  Silk.        I.  Title. 


Library  of  Congress 


19—13224 


TS1665.H6 
i37gl, 


TECHNICAL  MICROFORM  DATA 


RLM  SIZE:  .^Smm 


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BIBLIOGRAPHIC  IRREGULARITIES 

MAIN  ENTRY:    Hooper.  Luther 


Silk,  its  production  and  manufacture 


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\ 


COMMON    COMMODITIES    OF   COMMERCE 

SERIES 

Each  book  in    crown  8vo,   cloth,   with    many 
illustrations,  charts,  etc.     Is.  6d.  net. 

Tea.       From   Grower   to    Consumer.       By   A. 

Ibbetson. 
Coffee.    From  Grower  to  Consumer.    By  B.  B. 

Keable. 
Sugar.     Cane    and   Beet.     By   Geo.    Martineau, 

C.B. 
Cotton.    From  the  Raw  material  to  the  Finished 

Product.     Bv  R.  J.  Peake. 
Oil,  Animal.  Veeretable.  Essential,   and  mineral. 

By  C.  Ainswi.rth   Mitchell. 
Rubber.    Production  and  Utilisation  of  the  Raw 

Product.     By  C.  Beadle  and  H.   P.  Stevens, 

M  .\.,  Ph.D.,  F.I.C. 
Iron  and  Steel.    Their  Production  and  manufac- 
ture.    By  C.   Hood. 
Leather.    From  the  Raw  material  to  the  Finished 

Product.     By  K.  J.  Adcock. 
Tobacco.    From  Grower  to  Smoker.    By  A.  E. 

Tanner. 
Wool.    From  the  Raw  material  to  the  Finished 

Product.     By  J.  A.  Hunter. 
Coal.     Its  Origin,  method  of  Working,  and  Pre 

paration    for    the    market     Bv    Francis    H. 

Wilson,  M.Inst.,  .M.i:. 
Linen.    From  the  Field  to  the  Finished  Product. 

By  Alfred  S.  Moore. 
Timber.    From  the  Forest  to  its  Use  in  Commerce. 

By  V/illiam  Bullock. 


Other  volumes  in  preparation. 


I 


PITMAN'S    COMMON   COMMODITIES 

OF    COMMERCE 


Tapestry  Woven  Silk  Panel  of  the  Egypto- Roman  Period 

It  probably  formed  part  of  a  child's  tunic.     The  original 

is  4"  X  4"  in  size,  and  is  in  the  Textile  Collection  of  the 

Victoria  and  Albert  Museum. 

From  a  water-colour  drawing  by  the  Author 


SILK 

ITS      PRODUCTION 
AND  MANUFACTURE 


BY 


LUTHER    HOOPER 


London 

Sir  Isaac  Pitman  &  Sons,  Lvd..  i  Amt:\  Corner,  E.C. 

Bath,  New  York  and  Melbourne 


I 


ii  t  ■  <>  *.  1 


•    •  I  •  • « ^ 

•  »      t       w  t    * 


<  1 


•  • 


t     • 
•   «  « 


:'J^/^/  / 


Printed  by  Sir  Isaac  Pitman 

&   Sons,   Ltd.,   London,   Bath, 

New  York  and  Melbourne 


\ 


\ 


CONTENTS 


OS 

UJ 

CHAP 
I. 

o 

n. 

CO 

IIL 

▼H 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XL 

XII. 

XIIL 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVIL 
XVIII. 


PACK 

THE  VALUE  OF   SILK  AND  SOURCE  OF 

SUPPLY 1 

THE   SILKWORM 5 

VARIETIES   OF  SILK-PRODUCING   MOTHS  .       12 

HISTORY  OF  SILK  AND  SERICULTURE    .  ,       17 

THE   PRACTICE   OF  SERICULTURE  .  .      25 

REELING   FROM   THE   COCOONS     .  .33 

SILK  THROWING   AND   WINDING  .  .      37 

SILK   DYEING 48 

VARIETIES   OF   SILK  THREAD  .59 

ANCIENT  SILK   WEAVING     .  .  .  .62 

THE  ORNAMENTAL   SILK   WEBS   OF  CHINA      .      73 
THE    SIMPLE    AND    COMPOUND    DRAW-LOOM 

FOR  SILK  WEAVING         .  .  .  .79 

SATIN   DAMASK   WEAVING  .  .  .94 

SILK   WEAVING   IN   THE   EAST  TO   A.D.    1200        99 

THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  SILK  WEAVING  INTO 

EUROPE 102 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  EUROPEAN  SILK  WEAVING, 

THIRTEENTH  TO  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  .  107 
ENGLISH  SILK  WEAVING  TO  ABOUT  1800  .  Ill 
MODERN   SILK   WEAVING     .            .            .  .114 

INDEX 123 


¥. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PANEL    OF    WOVEN    SILK,    4TH    CENTURY 


Frontispiece 


\ 


{ 


■J  I 


1 

A. 


PAGE 

THE  SILKWORM  MOTH  ......  4 

THE  SILKWORM  .......  5 

PLATE    2.    A.      LIFE  HISTORY  OF  A  SILKWORM  .  .  7 

B.     TITLE  PAGE  OF  AN  18th  CENTURY  BOOK      .  7 

LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  FULL-GROWN  SILKWORM  .  9 

FIBROIN  APPARATUS  ......  9 

WINDING  THE  FIBRE  .  .  .  .  .  .11 

CATERPILLAR  OF  TUSSER  MOTH  .  .  .  .12 

ANTHER-«A    YAMA-MAI  ......        14 

ANTHERiEA  PERNYI  .  .  .  .  .  .14 

TUSSER  MOTH,  ANTHER^A  MYLITTA      .  .  .  .16 

PLATE    3.    A.     CHINESE  VOTIVE  OFFERINGS    .  .  .18 

„  B.      PERSIAN  MONKS  AND  JUSTINIAN         .  .        18 

MORUS  ALBA THE  CHINESE  MULBERRY  .  .  .25 

PLATE    4.    A.     SILKWORM  BREEDING  EXTRAORDINARY      .       30 

,.  B.      CHINESE  COCOON  REELING  .  .  .30 

MORUS  INDICA THE  INDIAN  MULBERRY  .  .  .32 

REELING    MACHINE     .......       35 

WINDING  MACHINE  .  .38 

CLEANING  MACHINE  .....       41 

SPINDLE  AND  FLIER  .  .  .  .  .43 

DOUBLER  ........       44 

DYE  STICK         . 50 

DYE  BARC 51 

TURNING  THE  SKEINS  .  .  .  .  .  .52 

DYE  BARC  IN  USE       .......       53 

WRINGING  ........       54 

vii 


Vlll 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PACE 
PLATE    5.    A.     A  FRENCH  DYEHOUSE.   18tH  CENTURY  .       55 

B.      A  MEDIEVAL  DYER  .  .  .  .55 

TAPESTRY  WEAVING  ......       63 

PLATE    6.    A.     POWER-LOOM  TISSUE  (mODERN)  .  .       64 

„  B.      CHINESE  IMPERIAL  ROBE  .  .  .64 

TABBY  WEAVING 66 

HEADLES  FOR  OPENING  THE  WARP  OR  SHED.  .  .       68 

THE  SATIN  WEB  .......       70 

INTERSECTIONS      EXPRESSED      ON      DESIGNER'S      RULED 

PAPER 70 

SATIN  WEAVING           .              .              .              .              .              .  .71 

DRAGON,  FROM  AN  ANCIENT  CHINESE  PAINTING       .  ,       73 

PLATE    7.    A.     CHINESE  SATIN  WITH  EMBROIDERY   .  .       74 

B.      CHINESE  DRAW-LOOM       .              .              .  .74 

A  COMBER  BOARD       .......       80 

A  COMBER  BOARD  LEASH    .              .              .              .              .  .81 

DRAW-LOOM  MONTURE          .              .              .              ,              .  .82 

DIAGRAM    SHOWING  ONE  CORD  OF  THE  DRAW-LOOM  .       84 

DESIGN  AND  TIE-UP  ON  THE  SIMPLE  CORDS   .              .  .85 

DOUBLE-HARNESS  WEAVING           .              .              .              .  .88 

DIAGRAM  OF  DOUBLE  HARNESS    .              .              .              .  .89 

POINT  REPEATING  MONTURE           .              .              .              .  .91 

PLATE    8.    A.     CHINESE  SILK  DAMASK    .              .              .  .93 

B.      CHINESE      BROCADE      WITH      PERSIAN      IN- 
SCRIPTION .......       93 

DRAUGHT  OF  SATINS  .  .  .  .  .  .95 

DIAGRAM  OF  DOUBLE  HARNESS   .  .  .  .  .97 

WOVEN  ARABIC  INSCRIPTION  .  .  .  .  .99 

COPTIC  ORNAMENT      .......     101 

SICILIAN  WOVEN  ORNAMENT  .  .  .  .  .102 

PLATE    9.    A.     SPANISH  MORESQUE  15tH  CENTURY  .  .     103 

•  »**•  ft  It  n  t,  .     1  Ut5 

SICILIAN  DAMASK.       THE  HART  AND  SUNDOG  DESIGN  .     108 


I 

^ 


I 


SILK 


CHAPTER    I 

THE  VALUE  OF  SILK  AND  SOURCE  OF  SUPPLY 

The  Importance  and  Commercial  Value  of  Silk. — The 
important  and  interesting  subject  to  be  dealt  with  in 
the  present  volume  of  the  Commodities  of  Commerce 
series  is  a  very  wide  one,  so  that  it  will  only  be  possible, 
within  the  limits  at  disposal,  to  give  the  reader  a  general 
idea  of  the  several  matters  opened  up,  and  refer  the 
student,  who  may  be  desirous  of  following  them  out  in 
greater  detail,  to  the  various  authorities  he  may  consult 
with  advantage. 

The  textile  industries,  both  of  the  past  and  present, 
loom  very  large  amongst  the  necessary  arts  of  life  ;  and 
it  may  be  affirmed  with  truth  that  the  richest,  most 
ingenious  and  beautiful,  as  well  as  the  most  com- 
mercially valuable,  branches  of  the  weaver's  and 
embroiderer's  crafts,  are  those  in  which  is  manipu- 
lated the  smooth,  tenacious,  and  lustrous  thread,  called 
by  the  ancients  Ser  or  sericum,  and  by  us  to-day, 
silk. 

It  will  be  seen,  as  the  subject  is  developed,  that  silk 
well  deserves  the  esteem  in  which  it  has  been  held  for 
at  least  three  or  four  thousand  years.  Because  of  its 
fineness,  strength   and  lustre,  as  well  as  its  affinity  for 

1 

T—  1468 


I 


SILK 


rich  and  delicate  dyes,  it  has  enabled  the  weaver  and 
embroiderer  to  produce,  by  the  intersection  of  its 
threads  in  various  combinations,  the  most  beautiful  and 
elaborate  ornamental  designs,  and  to  colour  them  with 
the  tints  of  the  rainbow.  In  the  third  century,  the 
monk  Dionysius  Perigates  wrote  of  the  Chinese,  or 
Seres,  as  they  were  then  called  :  "  The  Seres  make 
precious  figured  garments  resembling  in  colour  the 
flowers  of  the  field,  and  rivalling  in  fineness  the  work 
.    of  spiders." 

V  The  commercial  value  of  the  silk  industries,  in  the 
present  day,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  the 
silk  thread  produced  annually  in  Europe  is  estimated 
to  be  worth  thirty  milhons  of  pounds  sterling,  and  in 
Europe  and  Asia  combined,  about  seventy  millions. 
These  figures  can,  however,  only  be  taken  as  approxi- 
mate, for  the  statistics  with  regard  to  China,  which  is 
still  the  greatest  producer  and  consumer  of  silk,  are 
extremely  difiicult  to  gather  and  very  unreliable.  It  is 
probable  that  the  value  of  the  silk  produced  in  Asia  is 
much  greater  than  is  stated  above. 

The  Chemical  Composition  of  Silk  Fibre. — When  the 
natural  fibre  of  silk  is  microscopically  and  chemically 
examined  it  is  found  to  consist  chiefly  of  two  substances, 
called  respectively  Fibroin  and  Serecin.  To  these  is 
added  a  very  trifling  amount  of  waxy,  and  more  or  less 
colouring  matter.  Both  fibroin  and  serecin  are  com- 
posed of  four  elements  :  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
and  oxygen.  In  serecin  there  is  a  rather  larger  pro- 
portion of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  than  in  fibroin.  The 
chemical  formulae  for  the  two  substances  are  for 
fibroin  Ci6H23N60e  and  for  serecin  CisHasNsOg. 

The  fibroin  is  a  homy  kind  of  substance,  and  forms 
the  core  of  the  fibre.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  even  when 
boiling.     The  serecin  is  on  the  surface  of  the  fibre  (see 


I 


|( 


THE  VALUE  OF  SILK  AND  SOURCE  OF  SUPPLY    3 

Section,  Fig.  1),  and  the  excess  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  in  its  composition  renders  it  soluble  in  boiling 
water.  It  is  commonly  called  silk  gum.  The  pro- 
portions of  fibroin  to  serecin  in  the  natural  fibre  are 
about  two  parts  of  fibroin  to  one  of  serecin. 

Although  fibroin  is  not  soluble  in  water,  it  is  highly 
hygroscopic,    and  it   will  absorb   as  much  as  33  per 
cent,    of   water   without    feeling 
damp  to  the  touch. 

When  freed  by  boiling  from 
the  gum,  the  fibre  assumes  the 
appearance  of  pure  silk,  with 
its  pearly  lustre  and   soft   brilli-  puj.  i 

ance.      The  wax  and  colouring 
matter  disappear  in  the  boiling,  together  with  the  silk 
gum. 

Pure  boiled  silk,  although  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
or  ether,  is  freely  acted  upon  by  strong  alkaline  solu- 
tions, acids,  and  solutions  of  ammonia  and  oxide  of 
copper. 

Silk  Produced  Naturally  a  Continuous  Thread. — ^Not 
only  on  account  of  its  richness  and  lustre  is  silk  dis- 
tinguished from  all  other  fibres,  but  because  it  is  natur- 
ally produced  in  a  continuous  thread  several  hundreds 
of  yards  in  length.  All  other  fibres  have  to  go  through 
numerous  preliminary  joining  and  twisting  processes 
before  they  become  thread  ;  but,  except  that  several 
strands  have  to  be  twined  together  in  order  to  make  it 
thick  enough  to  use  effectively,  the  natural  thread  of  silk 
is  produced  quite  ready  for  use. 

Extreme  Fineness  of  the  Fibre. — ^The  extreme  fineness 
of  this  wonderful  fibre  can  hardly  be  realized.  One 
ounce  of  natural  silk,  woxmd  and  measured,  is  found  to 
run,  as  it  is  called,  a  hundred  thousand  yards  in  length. 
The  silk  thread  is  produced  double  (see  Fig.   1),  two 


J 


SILK 


strands  of  fibre  being  slightly  twisted  together,  as  will 
presently  be  shown. 

Strength  of  the  Fibre. — In  proportion  to  its  size,  this 
extremely  fine  thread,  v.hich  is  about  the  three  thou- 
sandth part  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  is  of  extraordinary 
strength.  Tables,  the  results  of  scientific  experiments  on 
the  elasticity  and  tenacity  of  the  Bave,  the  French  name 
for  the  natural  fibre,  are  to  be  found  in  technical  works 
on  the  subject  published  in  France.  ^  These  may  be 
consulted  by  the  student,  but  the  measurements  and 
weights  are  so  infinitely  small,  that  they  can  convey  no 
idea  to  the  general  reader.  It  will  be  sufficient  here  to 
note  that  a  twisted  thread  of  silk  fibres,  finer  than  the 
finest  human  hair,  will  stretch  five  or  six  inches  to  the 
yard,  and  bear  a  weight  of  from  twelve  to  sixteen  ounces. 
Also  that  a  cable  of  silk  would  sustain  a  heavier  weight 
than  one  of  equal  size  composed  of  any  other  fibre. 

Source  of  the  World's  Supply  of  Silk. — ^The  natural 
supply  of  silk  for  the  whole  world  for,  say,  4,000  years, 
the  monetary  value  of  which  is  incalculable,  has  depended 
almost  entirely  upon  the  instinct  of  the  caterpillar  of  a 
most  inconspicuous  moth  to  provide  for  itself  a  snug 
case  in  which  its  metamorphosis  into  its  perfect  form 
might  be  effected. 

*  Sir  Thomas  Wardle  gives  some  tables  in  his  Silk  at  the 
Manchester  Exhibition.     (Bumpus,  Holborn,  London.) 


Fig.  2.     The  Silkworm  Moth 


Fig.  3.     The  Silkworm 


CHAPTER    II 


THE   SILKWORM 

First  Classic  Allusion  to  the  Silkworm. — Aristotle,  in 
his  History  of  Animals  (Book  5,  Chap,  xvii,  Section  6), 
describes  "  a  certain  great  worm  which  has,  as  it  were, 
horns,  and  differs  from  all  others.  At  its  first  meta- 
morphosis it  produces  a  Kampe,  afterwards  a  Bombu- 
kion,  and  lastly  a  nakudalas.  It  passes  through  all 
these  forms  in  six  months.  From  this  animal  some 
women  unroll  and  separate  the  bombukina,  and  after- 
wards weave  them.  It  is  said  that  this  was  first  done 
in  the  island  of  Kos  by  Pamhila,  the  daughter  of  Plateos." 

This  first  allusion  to  the  silkworm  in  literature  is  most 
interesting,  and,  although  it  is  not  altogether  correct  in 
detail,  it  proves  beyond  doubt  that  silk  was  used  for 
weaving  in  classic  times.  It  also  shows  that  the  natural 
source  from  which  the  thread  was  obtained,  was  pretty 
accurately  known  in  ancient  Greece.  It  gives,  too,  the 
origin  of  the  name  by  which  the  family  of  moths,  to 
which  the  silkworm  moth  belongs,  is  known,  the  Bomhy- 
cineB.  The  silkworm  moth  itself  is  the  Bombyx  Mori, 
so-called  l)ecause  the  caterpillar  feeds  on-  the  Morus 
Alba,  or  Chinese  white  mulberry  tree. 

Description  of  the  Silkworm. — At  the  head  of  this 


6 


SILK 


chapter  the  silkworm  is  drawn  full  size,  ready  to  change 
into  the  chrysalis  or  pupa  form.  It  is  a  repulsive- 
looking  creature,  especially  when  full-grown,  but  is 
admirably  fitted  for  its  duty  in  life,  which  is  to  feed 
voraciously,  and  to  manufacture,  in  its  wonderful 
internal  laboratory,  the  fibroin  and  serecin,  which  will 
afterwards  become  the  lustrous  silk  fibre. 

Before  enquiring  into  the  interior  anatomy  of  the 
caterpillar  and  its  life  story,  it  will  be  well  to  describe 
the  structure  and  functions  of  the  creature  as  far  as 
they  can  be  gathered  from  the  exttrior  view.  This 
shows  that,  in  common  with  all  caterpillars,  the 
silkworm's  structural  framework  consists  of  twelve 
concentric  rings  of  cartilage  which  are  connected 
together  by  soft  and  elastic  skin.  Its  head  is 
extremely  small  in  proportion  to  the  creature's  size, 
and  is  furnished  with  two  very  powerful  mandibles  or 
jaws,  in  which  are  set  sharp  grinders  for  tearing  up  and 
masticating  its  food.  The  mouth  is  only  used  for  eating, 
as  respiration  is  carried  on  through  the  black  spots 
which  may  be  seen  on  most  of  the  concentric  rings. 
These  spots  are  openings  which  lead  to  the  respiratory 
ducts,  and  these,  in  turn,  are  in  communication  with 
the  veinous  system.  There  are  three  pairs  of  hook-like 
feet  quite  near  the  head,  fitted  for  catching  hold  of  and 
clinging  to  thin  stems  and  the  edges  of  the  leaves  on 
which  the  caterpillar  feeds.  There  are  also  ten  pads 
for  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  creature's  body,  one 
pair  of  these  being  placed  on  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth, 
and  twelfth  rings  respectively.  The  caterpillar  moves 
about  by  means  of  first  hunching  up  its  back  and  draw- 
ing forward  its  hinder  parts,  then  holding  on  with  its 
pads  and  extending  the  front  portion  of  its  body  to  its 
full  length.  There  are  no  horns,  as  mentioned  by 
Aristotle,   but  there  are  two  or  three,   more  or  less 


i 


>« 

H 
O 

s 

H 

GO 


o 

s 


2     5< 
o  o.^ 

H  O 


M 
H 
< 


o 

■V. 


°       E 

>  CO     ^ 

u 

•  o 

^  -' 


O 

<0 


s 


8 


SILK 


developed,  spines  on  the  caterpillar's  back,  the  largest 
one  being  above  the  hindmost  ring  of  cartilage. 

Life  Story  of  the  Silkworm  Moth.— At  A,  Plate  2,  the 
life  story  of  the  Bombyx  Mori  is  given.  At  the  top  of 
the  photograph  a  few  eggs  are  shown.  Of  these,  the 
female  moth  lays  a  very  large  number.  They  are  very 
minute,  and  so  light  that  40,000  only  weigh  about  an 
ounce.  This  number  is  sufficient  to  stock  a  small  silk- 
worm farm  for  one  season.  When  first  laid  by  the  moth, 
in  the  summer,  they  are  pink  in  colour,  but  soon  change 
to  a  dark  grey,  and  so  remain  until  th'^y  are  hatched  in 
the  following  spring,  for  the  Bombyx  Mori  only  breeds 
once  annually  in  temperate  climates. 

The  growth  of  the  larva  or  caterpillar,  as  soon  as  it 
is  hatched,  is  very  rapid.  It  at  once  attacks  the  edges 
of  the  leaves  on  which  it  is  placed,  and  in  a  few  days 
grows  too  large  for  its  skin,  even  though  the  latter  is 
very  elastic.  It  then  ceases  feeding,  and  a  new  skin 
having  formed,  it  casts  the  old  one  by,  moving  back- 
wards out  of  it.  When  free,  it  begins  feeding  again 
voraciously.  This  change  of  skin  occurs  four  times  in 
about  six  weeks,  by  which  time,  if  healthy,  the  cater- 
pillar will  measure  three  inches  in  length,  weigh  the  ninth 
part  of  an  ounce,  and  appear  like  the  full-grown  silk- worm 
represented  feeding  on  the  top  edge  of  the  leaf  in  A, 
Plate  2,  and  in  Fig.  3.  Caterpillars  at  various  stages  of 
growth  are  also  shown  feeding  on  the  leaves  at  A,  Plate  2. 

The  Apparatus  for  Making  Fibroin. — Fig.  4  is  the 
longitudinal  section  of  a  full-grown  silkworm,  taken  for 
the  purpose  of  showing  the  apparatus  in  which  the 
fibroin  is  made  and  stored.  1,  1  is  the  main  artery  of 
the  organism  which  is  in  communication  with  the 
respiratory  ducts ;  2,  2  is  the  alimentary  canal  or 
digestive  tube,  into  which  all  the  food  the  creature 
devours  enters  after  being  masticated  ;  3  is  the  fibroin 


i. 


I 


f 


THE   SILKWORM 


9 


reservoir  and  apparatus.     The  curiously  twisted  tube 
which  begins  just  below  the  posterior  spine  and  termi- 
nates in  the  reservoir  at  its  end  towards  the  beginning 


Fig.  4 

of  the  canal,  is  the  laboratory  in  which  the  fluid  fibroin 
is  made.  Between  the  other  end  of  the  reservoir  and 
the  creature's  mouth  another  twisted  tube  is  seen  ;  this 
terminates  in  an  orifice  in  its  lower  lip.  This  tube  is 
for  the  purpose  of  preparing  the  liquid  silk  for  discharge 
and  emitting  it  when  required  for  use  in  forming  the  case 
or  cocoon.     A  reference  to   Fig.  5,  in  which  the  fibroin 


Fig.  5 

apparatus  is  drawn  separately  and  from  above,  will 
show  that  the  reservoir  and  tubes  are  double  and  are 
placed  in  the  two  sides  of  the  digestive  canal.  The  pre- 
paration tubes,  the  reservoirs,  and  the  discharging  tubes 
are  numbered,  in  Fig.  5,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  respectively.  ^ 

*  Silk  gut,  which  is  used  by  fishermen,  because  of  its  strength* 
lightness,  and  insolubihty  in  water,  is  made  from  the  fibroin 
apparatus  of  the  silkworm.  When  full-grown,  the  caterpillar  is 
killed,  and  the  reservoir  and  tubes  extracted.  Being  elastic  and 
the  fibroin  in  a  jelly  form,  they  allow  of  being  stretched  out  to 
a  considerable  length,  and  are  moulded  to  an  even  size  by  the 
fingers  of  the  operator.  The  stretched  line  is  then  left  to  dry 
in  the  sun  and  after  this  is  ready  for  use. 


10 


SILK 


The  Cocoon. — ^The  caterpillar,  being  full-grown,  ceases 
to  feed,  appears  restless,  and  its  skin  changes  to  a  semi- 
transparent,  pinky  flesh  colour.  These  are  signs  that 
it  is  seeking  a  place  in  which  to  prepare  for  its  change 
into  the  chrysalis  or  pupa  form.  Having  found  a  con- 
venient small  branch  or  twig,  the  silkworm  emits  from 
the  tiny  orifice  in  its  lower  lip  a  little  of  the  precious 
fibroin.  This  quickly  dries  and  adheres  to  the  twig. 
The  work,  which  has  taken  so  long  to  prepare  for,  then 
commences.  By  a  mysterious  waving  motion  of  its 
head,  and  a  slow  circular  motion  of  its  body,  it  gradually 
envelops  itself  in  a  bombukion,  as  Aristotle  named  it, 
of  Fibroin,  drawn  out  from  its  lip  in  a  minute  double 
thread,  slightly  twisted,  and  united  by  serecin  or  silk 
gum,  into  a  solid  case  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  a  cocoon. 

Use  of  the  Wax. — It  is  supposed  that  the  wax,  traces 
of  which  are  found  in  the  natural  silk  fibre,  is  for  the 
purpose  of  lubricating  the  orifice  from  which  the  thread 
is  rapidly  drawn  out. 

Cause  of  Variety  in  Colour  of  Fibre.— The  variety  of 
colouring  matter,  which  is  added  to  the  fibre  in  the 
discharging  tubes,  in  different  breeds  of  silkworms,  is 
probably  due  to  the  particular  kind  (for  there  are 
several)  of  mulberry  tree,  on  the  leaves  of  which  the 
caterpillar  has  been  fed. 

Serecin,  how  Made. — Some  authorities  believe  that 
the  extra  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  also  added  to  the 
stream  of  fibroin,  changing  it,  on  the  outside,  to 
serecin,  as  it  passes  along  the  discharging  tube.  But 
the  latest  theory  is  that  the  excess  of  these  elements  is 
gathered  from  the  atmospheric  air  as  the  fibre  emerges 
from  the  orifice  in  a  semi-liquid  state. 

Making  of  the  Cocoon. — The  fibre  is  not  wound  in  the 
cocoon  as  in  an  ordinary  ball,  but  in  the  ingenious 
twisted  manner  shown  in  Fig.  6. 


h 


THE   SILKWORM 


11 


Fig.  6. 


When  once  started,  the  operation  is  seldom,  if  ever, 
broken  off   until   the  supply  of  fibroin  is     exhausted. 
When     finished,    the     double     thread 
varies   in   length    from    500    to    1,300 
yards,  and  can  be  readily  wound  off  in 
a  continuous  thread. 

The  caterpillar  thus  encloses  itself 
in  a  gradually  narrowing  cell,  and 
then,  after  its  giddy  work,  quietly 
carries  on  its  metamorphosis  into  the 
Imago  or  moth,  furnished  with  four 
wings,  six  legs,  and  two  feathery 
antennae.     (See  Fig.  2.) 

When  thus  complete  and  its  hyber- 
nation   is    finished,   the   moth    breaks 
through  its   prison   walls,  its  wings  expand  and  dry, 
and  it   enters  into  its  perfect  state. 

Brief  Life  of  the  Moth.— The  moth  only  lives  a  very 
few  hours  after  all  this  preparation.  Its  only  business 
is  to  arrange  for  the  next  generation  of  its  kind.  It 
never  eats,  for  its  mouth  is  atrophied  ;  it  seldom,  if 
ever,  uses  its  wings,  except  to  flutter  weakly.  The 
female  just  lays  her  eggs  and  then  dies,  a  melancholy 
victim  to  centuries  of  domestication  and  specializing  in 
silk. 

Until  quite  recently,  it  was  supposed  that  the 
Bomhyx  Mori  was  the  only  moth  worth  cultivating 
extensively  for  silk,  but  it  has  now  been  found  that 
many  other  varieties  of  silk-producing  moths  are  worth 
attention.  Some  of  these  will  be  considered  in  the 
next  chapter. 


Fig.  7.     Caterpillar  of  Tusser  Moth 


CHAPTER    III 

VARIETIES   OF   SILK-PRODUCING   MOTHS 

Other  Varieties  of  Silk  Moths. — Although  by  far  the 
greatest  quantity  of  silk,  as  well  as  the  finest,  strongest, 
and  most  perfect  fibre,  is  produced  by  the  annual  silk- 
worm of  temperate  chmates,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  silk 
obtained  in  India  and  other  hot  countries  from  the 
mulberry- feeding  varieties  of  silk  moths  that  belong  to 
the  muUivoUine  classes,  that  is,  those  that  breed  several 
times  a  year.  This  silk  is  often  very  bright  and 
exquisitely  soft,  but  lacks  the  strength  of  that  pro- 
duced by  the  univoltine  or  annual  breeders.  This  is 
es|)ecially  the  case  where  the  silkworms  are  domesticated, 
as  nearly  all  the  mulberry-feeding  varieties  are. 

Indian  Tusser  Silk. — By  far  the  greatest  quantity  of 
silk  produced  and  used  in  India,  is  obtained  from  the 
cocoons  of  the  wild  Tusser  moth,  the  caterpillar  of  which 
feeds  on  the  oak  and  other  trees  in  the  jungles  of  Central 
and  Southern  India.  It  is  quite  probable  that  if  the 
same  care  were  given  to  the  breeding,  rearing,  and 
feeding  of  this  silk  producer,  much  improvement  might 

12 


J 


A 


." 


VARIETIES  OF  SILK-PRODUCING  MOTHS 


13 


be  effected  in  the  quality  of  the  fibre,  for  its  strength  and 
elasticity  are  remarkable.  Fig.  7  represents  the 
caterpillar  of  the  Tusser  moth,  two-thirds  its  actual 
size. 

Breeding  of  Tusser  Silkworms. — ^The  method  adopted 
by  the  natives  who  engage  in  the  Tusser  silk  industry  is  a 
very  rough  and  ready  one.  In  the  early  part  of  the  hot 
weather,  when  the  fohage  is  thin,  search  is  made  in  the 
jungle  for  fresh  cocoons.  The  moths  are  allowed  to 
emerge  from  these,  and  are  chiefly  used  for  breeding. 
They  very  soon  lay  their  eggs,  which  are  hung  up  in 
the  branches  of  trees  chosen  to  receive  them.  The  silk- 
worms which  emerge  from  these  eggs  are  allowed  to 
travel  about  the  foliage  and  feed  at  will.  During  the 
time  when  the  caterpillars  are  feeding  upon  the  trees  in 
the  open  air,  heavy  rain  is  of  daily  occurrence,  and 
without  this  frequent  watering,  which  no  doubt  keeps 
them  clean,  they  will  not  thrive.  The  rearers  carefully 
watch  over  the  trees  to  protect  the  caterpillars  from 
bats,  rats,  and  other  enemies.  While  the  rearing 
is  going  on  they  also  observe  many  ceremonial 
rites.  ^ 

Wild  Tusser  silk,  in  common  with  all  oak-feeding 
silkworms'  silk,  is  strongly  impregnated  with  tannin, 
which  has  to  be  thoroughly  discharged  before  the  silk 
can  be  dyed.  This  was  formerly  an  obstacle  to  its 
general  use,  but  the  difficulty  has,  to  a  great  extent, 
been  overcome,  and  satisfactory  effects  of  dye  on 
Tusser  silk  can  now  be  obtained. 

*  See  No.  23  Handbooks  of  Commercial  Products  (Indian 
Section,  Imperial  Institute  Series).  Much  useful  information 
on  the  varieties  of  other  silk-producing  moths  in  India  will  be 
found  in  it.  The  late  Sir  Thomas  Wardle  gave  much  attention 
to  the  silk-producing  industries  of  India,  and  wrote  largely  on 
the  subject.  All  his  books  are  worth  consulting,  and  give  much 
information. 


14 


SILK 


The  Atlas  moth  is  the  largest  of  all  the  many  varieties 
of  silk-producing  lepidoptera.  It  is  a  native  of  India, 
and  its  freedom,  strength,  and  splendour  render  it 
a  remarkable  contrast  to  its  diminutive  but  industrious 
relation,  the  Bombyx  Mori,  Its  silk,  however,  is  of  little 
value. 

Two  important  members  of  the  oak-feeding  species  of 
silk  moths  must  now  be  noticed.  The  Anther aa  Yama- 
Mai  (Fig.  8)  is  a  native  of  Japan,  where  it  is  much  prized 


Fig.  8.     Anther^a  Yama-Mai.  {one-third  natural  size) 

and  carefully  bred.  The  moth  is  a  beautiful  insect,  of 
a  bright  yellow  colour,  and  often  measures  6  inches 
across  the  wings.  Its  cocoon  is  as  large  as  a  pigeon's 
egg,  and  the  silk,  though  similar  to  Tusser,  is  much 
finer  and  more  lustrous.  This  is  no  doubt  owing  to  the 
care  bestowed  on  its  breeding  and  rearing. 
The  Anther cea  Pernyi  (Fig.  9)  is  a  Chinese  insect. 


Fig.  9.     ANTHERiEA  Pernyi   (one-third  natural  size) 


0 


VARIETIES   OF   SILK-PRODUCING   MOTHS 


15 


It  is  reared  in  a  semi-domesticated  state  in  that  country 
upon  oak  trees,  and  produces  a  large  amount  of 
valuable  silk. 

In  Central  Africa,  between  15°  N.  and  25°  S.,  the 
AnaphCy  a  curious  species  of  silk-producing  moth,  is 
found.  It  is  thought  that  this  species  may  become  of 
considerable   commercial   importance. 

The  caterpillars  are  found  in  great  abundance. 
They  combine  into  groups,  spin  a  nest  together,  and 
each  insect  spins  its  individual  cocoon  inside  the  nest. 
They  breed  and  develop  very  quickly,  the  caterpillar 
being  hatched  a  very  few  days  after  the  eggs  are 
laid. 

When  the  moths  have  broken  through  the  cocoons 
and  flown,  the  empty  nests  are  collected,  and,  after 
being  cleaned,  are  torn  to  pieces  and  sent  to  the  spinning 
mills  to  be  made  into  spun  silk  thread.  This  industry 
is  yet  in  its  infancy,  and  it  seems  that  no  attempt  has 
yet  been  made  to  reel  silk  from  the  cocoons,  which,  as 
we  shall  see  later,  would,  of  course,  have  to  be  done 
before  the  flight  of  the  moths  had  spoiled  them  for 
winding. 

It  is  said  that  altogether  there  are  between  four  and 
five  hundred  species  of  silk-producing  moths  at  present 
classified.  But  a  large  proportion  of  these  are  of  no 
commercial  value  whatever,  because  either  the  amount 
of  silk  they  spin  is  so  small  that  it  is  a  negligible  quantity, 
or,  it  may  be,  the  silk  itself  is  too  poor  and  weak  to  be 
of  use,  or  the  moth  is  so  scarce,  that  the  species  is  not 
worth  considering  for  its  silk.  It  is  possible,  however, 
that  there  are  many  which  could  be  utilized  in  the  same 
way  as  the  African  species  just  described.  These  have 
hitherto  been  neglected,  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
collecting  and  reeling  the  silk  before  the  flight  of  the 
moth.     It  is  likely  that  in  the  future,  spun  silk  will  be 


16 


SILK 


much  more  in  demand  than  it  has  yet  been.  Shoulo 
this  be  so,  such  discoveries  as  that  of  the  abundance 
and  utihty  of  the  African  nesting  species  will  be 
invaluable. 


Fig.  10 
TussER  Moth,   Anther^ea  Mylitta  {half  natural  size) 


CHAPTER    IV 

HISTORY  OF  SILK  AND  SERICULTURE 

Antiquity  of  Sericulture.— The  history  of  the  utiliza- 
tion of  silk,  and  the  domestication  of  the  silkworm, 
is  a  most  interesting  one.  It  goes  back  to  a  period  far 
earlier  than  that  of  the  first  definite  descnption  of  the 
silkworm  given  by  Aristotle,  which  has  already  been 

referred  to.  .     ^  t-^       „ 

Seventeenth  Century  Books  on  Senculture.-Dunng 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the  silkworm 
was  an  object  of  much  interest  and  speculation   in 
Europe,  and  many  books  and  pamphlets  were  issued 
relating  to  the  subject  of  its  origin,  habits  and  history. 
On  many  points  these  books  are  most  useful ;  they  are 
always  interesting,  and  in  many  cases  are  beautifully 
iUustrated    and    printed.     They    are,    however,    more 
amusing  than  helpful  when  they  atteinpt  to  deal  with 
early  tiLes,  and  remote  countries.     B  Plate  2,  Pves  the 
title-page  of    a  book  which,  published  in   1733,js  a 
delightful  example  of  this  bibliography  of  the  silkworm. 
In  his  introduction,  the  author  of  the  work,  after  refer- 
ring to  the  account  of  the  sixth  day  of  creation  m  the 
Book  of  Genesis,   discusses   the   probabihty  of  ante- 
deluvian  sericulture,  and  thinks  it  likely  that  Noah, 
after  the  flood,  settled  in  China  and  originated  sen- 
culture   in   that   country.     Here   we   must    eave   the 
author  at  present  and  turn  to  the  Celestial  Empire, 
for.  whether  Noah  settled  there  or  not,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  China  was  the  natural  home  of  the  silkworm 

«  National  Art  Library.  South  Kensington.  London. 

17 


HISTORY  OF  SILK  AND  SERICULTURE 


19 


\,  Plate  3.    Chinese  Votive  Offerings 

(See  p.   18) 

{Victoria  and  Albert  Museum) 


B,  Plate  3.    Persian  Monks  and  Justinian 

(See  p.  22) 
{National  Art  Library,  South  Kensington) 


in    ancient    times,    and    that    sericulture    was    highly 
developed  by  the  Chinese  at  a  very  remote  period. 

Name  of  China  derived  from  Silk.— The  name  China 
is  derived  from  SsU,  which  is  the  Chinese  word  for  silk. 
All  the  names  by  which  China  was  known  to  the  ancients 
were  also  derived  from  that  of  the  precious  fibre.  Seres, 
Tsin,  Sinem,  Sereca,  and  others  all  signify  the  land  of  silk. 

China  is  said  to  have  an  uninterrupted  literary  history 
which  goes  back  to  between  two  and  three  thousand 
years  B.C.,  and  in  it  there  are  many  references  to  the 
silkworm,  sericulture,  silk  weaving,  and  silk  embroidery. 

First  Mention  of  Silk  in  Chinese  History.— The  first 
direct  mention  of  silk  in  Chinese  history  is  in  connection 
with  the  wife  of  the  Emperor  W'Hang,  who  reigned 
B.C.  2500.  This  emperor  was  a  great  patron  of  agri- 
culture, and  his  empress  was  the  first  to  cultivate  the 
silkworm.  To  her  also  is  attributed  the  invention  of 
the  loom  for  weaving  silk  into  the  patterned  webs, 
which  were  not  only  prized  in  China  itself,  but  were 
exchanged  for  more  than  their  weight  in  gold  in  India, 
Persia,  Greece,  and  Rome. 

During  the  reign  of  this  Emperor  W'Hang  the  annual 
festivals  of  agriculture  and  sericulture,  which  are  still 
held  in  China,  were  first  instituted.  In  these  festivals, 
among  other  ceremonies,  the  reigning  emperor  ploughs 
a  furrow,  and  the  empress  makes  an  offering,  at  the  altar 
of  her  deified  predecessor,  of  cocoons  and  mulberry  leaves. 
A,  Plate  3,  is  photographed  from  a  Chinese  drawing, 
and  represents  a  Chinese  family  making  votive  offerings 
at  the  shrine  of  the  royal  sericulturalist,  the  ancient 
Empress  Hsi-Ling-Shih.  This  picture  is  from  an  illus- 
trated book  on  sericulture  and  tillage.  The  first  edition 
was  published  in  China  in  1210  A.D.,  and  twenty- 
three  pictures  and  descriptive  poems  are  devoted  to 
silk-winding,  weaving,  and  sericulture. 


i 


20 


SILK 


HISTORY  OF  SILK  AND  SERICULTURE 


21 


Secret  of  Sericulture  kept  by  the  Chinese. — ^The  Chinese, 
always  a  wily  nation,  used  to  tell  foreigners,  when 
asked  as  to  the  origin  of  silk,  that  it  was  obtained  from 
the  fleeces  of  sheep,  which,  on  being  sprinkled  with 
water  in  the  sunshine,  at  certain  seasons  in  the  year, 
abounded  with  fine  threads.  These,  on  being  combed 
out,  were  found  to  be  of  fine  silk,  ready  for  weaving. 

Herodotus  and  Pliny  both  say  that  some  kinds  of 
silk  are  a  vegetable  growth,  evidently  confusing  it  with 
the  fine  cotton  of  India. 

The  secret  of  sericulture,  though  not  perhaps  that  of 
the  actual  source  of  supply,  was  thus  most  carefully 
guarded  by  the  Chinese,  and  it  is  pretty  certain  that  it 
was  successfully  kept  until  about  300  a.d. 

Very  little  silk  was  used  for  weaving  outside  of  China 
in  ancient  times,  but  Chinese  woven  silks  and 
embroideries  were  extensively  exported  and  much  prized. 

Ancient  difficulty  of  obtaining  Silk  Thread  for  weaving. 
— As  silken  thread,  for  weaving  and  embroidery,  could 
not  to  be  obtained  from  China  in  ancient  times,  it  was 
customary  to  purchase  the  plain  woven  silks  and  un- 
weave them  for  the  sake  of  the  precious  thread  which 
the  Chinese  not  only  made  up  so  perfectly,  but  dyed  in 
the  most  lovely  and  varied  colours.  This  was,  no  doubt, 
what  was  done  in  the  island  of  Kos,  mentioned  by  Aris- 
totle in  the  quotation  already  made.  Kos  was  an 
island  near  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  probably  the 
weavers  there  had  facilities  for  obtaining  these  loosely 
woven,  plain  coloured,  Chinese  webs.  This  may  have 
been  so  or  not,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  silk  used  by 
the  Egypto-Roman,  Saracenic,  and  Byzantine  weavers 
was  obtained  in  this  manner  until  the  fifth  or  sixth 
centuries  a.d. 

Plate  1  (the  frontispiece)  is  a  panel  of  Egypto-Roman 
sUk  tapestry  weaving.     It  is  referred  to  here  as  an 


example  of  the  use  of  silk  obtained  by  unravelling 
Chinese  webs,  but  its  method  of  work  and  other  points 
will  be  described  later  on. 

Seeing  that  silk  thread  was  so  precious,  and  obtained 
with  so  much  difficulty,  it  is  not  surprising  that  very 
little  silk  was  used  for  weaving  in  ancient  times.  Linen 
and  wool  were  the  materials  on  which  the  ancient 
weavers,  outside  China,  exercised  their  skill. 

Introduction  of  Silk  to  Japan.— It  is  recorded  in 
Japanese  history,  that,  in  the  third  century,  according 
to  our  chronology,  a  secret  mission  was  successful  in 
penetrating  to  China,  and  was  enabled  to  obtain  silk- 
worms, and  capture,  or  persuade,  four  Chinese  girls,  and 
bring  them  to  Japan.  These  girls  taught  the  Japanese 
the  art  of  sericulture,  and  the  use  of  silk.  From  that 
time  the  breeding  of  silkworms  and  the  arts  of  silk 
weaving  and  embroidery,  quickly  became  most  important 
branches  of  Japanese  art  and  manufacture. 

Introduction  of  Silk  to  India.— Tradition  says  that  at 
about  the  same  time,  300  a. d.,  an  Indian  princess  visited 
China,  or  a  Chinese  princess  married  an  Indian  prince, 
and  brought  to  India  in  her  head-dress  the  eggs  of  silk- 
worms. She  was  enabled  to  teach  the  management  of 
these  valuable  creatures  to  the  people  of  India,  so  that 
the  weaving  of  silk  soon  began  to  rival  the  weaving  of 
fine  cotton,  for  which  that  country  had  been  as  famous 
in  the  ancient  world  as  was  China  for  the  weaving  of  silk. 
Presentation  of  Silkworm  Eggs  to  Justinian.— The 
Byzantine  and  Saracenic  silk  weavers,  so  many  speci- 
mens of  whose  beautiful  work  are  treasured  in  our 
museums,  obtained  their  silken  threads  by  imravelling 
in  the  manner  already  described.  But  in  the  sixth 
century,  as  all  historians  agree,  two  Persian  monks, 
who  had  lived  in  China  and  learned  the  whole  art  and 
mystery  of  sericulture,  arrived  in  Constantinople  and 


22 


SILK 


' 


hlSTORV  OF  SILK  AND   SERICULTURE 


23 


imparted  their  knowledge  to  the  Emperor  Justinian, 
who  deeply  interested  himself  in  silk  weaving  and  other 
arts.  He  induced  the  monks,  by  great  persuasion  and 
promises  of  reward,  to  return  to  China  and  attempt  to 
bring  to  Europe  the  materials  necessary  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  silk.  They  effected  this  by  concealing  the  eggs 
of  the  silkworm  moth  in  a  hollow  cane.  "  From  the 
precious  contents  of  that  bamboo  tube,  brought  to 
Constantinople  about  the  year  550  A.D.,  were  produced 
all  the  generations  of  silkworms  which  stocked  the 
Western  world,  and  which  gave  trade,  prosperity,  and 
untold  wealth  to  great  communities  for  more  than 
twelve  hundred  years."  ^ 

B,  Plate  3,  is  reproduced  from  an  engraving  in  the 
book  of  which  B,  Plate  2,  gives  the  title-page.  It  is 
designed  to  represent  the  incident  of  the  Persian  monks 
presenting  the  tube  of  silkworm  eggs  to  the  Emj^eror 
Justinian. 

Spread  of  Sericulture  in  the  East.— Between  the  sixth 
and  twelfth  centuries  sericulture  and  silk  weaving 
extended  over  the  whole  of,  w  hat  is  now  called ,  the  Near 
and  Far  East ;  and  during  all  this  time  a  great  deal  of 
trading,  both  in  raw  and  manufactured  silk,  was  done 
by  Eastern  merchants,  who  travelled  all  over  Europe 
in  order  to  sell  their  costly  wares. 

Introduction  of  Sericulture  to  Europe.— It  is  pro- 
bable that  the  first  introduction  of  the  silkworm  into 
Europe  was  made  by  the  Moors  when  they  conquered 
the  greater  part  of  Spain,  and  brought  their  arts  and 
handicrafts  to  enrich  that  country,  but  there  is  no 
record  of  the  fact.  In  the  twelfth  century,  however, 
there  are  authentic  accounts  of  the  settlement  in  Italy 
of  colonies  of  Eastern  craftsmen,  and  the  commencement 

*  Dr.  S.  W.  Bushell,  Chinese  Art.  National  Art  Library,  South 
Kensington. 


of  silk  weaving  and  sericulture,  as  well  as  the  other  arts 
dependent  on  weaving. 

The  domestication  of  the  silkworm  in  Italy  succeeded, 
and  silk  weaving  flourished.  The  Italians,  like  the 
Chinese,  endeavoured  to  keep  the  secrets  of  breeding  the 
silkworm  and  the  preparation  of  the  raw  silk  to  them- 
selves. They  were  able  to  do  this  for  about  three 
centuries,  but  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  became  known 
in  France,  and,  under  royal  patronage,  became  so  much 
valued,  that  titles  of  nobility  were  granted  to  many  of 
the  persons  who  had  been  most  successful  in  the  busi- 
ness. Kings  and  dukes  became  enthusiastic  sericultural- 
ists,  and  royal  and  noble  dames  wove  silk  in  the  loom. 
In  fact,  the  art  of  silk  production  and  silk  weaving  were 
there  so  practised  and  encouraged,  that  they  reached  in 
France,  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, to  the  highest  pitch  of  perfection  they  have  yet 
attained. 

That  success  in  any  art  does  not  depend  on  the  pre- 
servation of  secrets,  but  on  natural  and  contributing 
circumstances,  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that,  although  there 
is  now  no  mystery  in  the  matter,  China  in  Asia,  and 
Italy  in  Europe,  still  continue  incomparably  ahead  of 
all  other  nations  in  the  production  of  silk. 

Attempts  to  Introduce  Sericulture  into  England.— 
From  time  to  time  attempts  have  been  made  in  this 
country  to  introduce  sericulture.  James  I,  seeing  the 
success  of  the  French,  went  so  far  as  to  write  letters  to 
landowners  all  over  England,  advising  them  to  plant 
and  cultivate  mulberry  trees,  with  a  view  to  feeding 
silkworms,  but  no  serious  attempts  seem  to  have  been 
made  to  breed  silkworms  for  profit.  This  is  the  more 
strange,  because  for  a  time,  silk  weaving  flourished 
exceedingly  here.  The  mulberry  tree  also  grows  well, 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  country  the  young  leaves  are 


24 


SILK 


ready  about  the  same  time  as  the  eggs  of  the  moth  are 
hatched.  The  difficulty  may  be  with  the  EngUsh 
peasantry,  for  sericulture  is  essentially  a  peasant 
industry,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  genius  of  the  English 
peasant  is  more  adapted  for  fattening  pigs  and  other 
cattle,  and  brewing  beer,  than  for  delicately  feeding  and 
rearing  the  tender  silkworm,  preparing  its  precious 
cocoons,  and  reeling  them  for  sale. 

But  whatever  chances  there  are  of  sericulture  being 
successfully  carried  on  in  this  country,  there  can  be  no 
question  that  in  India  we  are,  in  our  sericultural  wealth, 
more  than  equal  to  France,  Italy,  or  any  other  country 
in  the  world,  being  in  some  respects  better  off  than 
China,  for  we  are  not  confined  to  one  species  of  silk- 
worm, nor  to  two.  India  has  the  greatest  silk-producing 
faima  in  the  world,  both  mulberry-feeding  and  oak- 
feeding  silk  moths  abound.  As  Sir  Thomas  Wardle  says 
in  his  interesting  handbook  on  Indian  silks,  already 
mentioned  :  "  Her  Tusser  silk  is  now  an  established  and 
well-rooted  industry,  a  few  years  ago  in  export  non- 
existing ;  her  Assamese  women  are  clad  in  silks  of  the 
Eri  and  Muga  worms,  of  which  we,  as  yet,  know  practi- 
cally nothing  ;  and  silken  stuffs  are  handed  down  from 
matron  to  spinster  but  little  the  worse  for  the  wear  of 
a  generation." 

With  reasonable  care,  then,  in  the  breeding  and  rear- 
ing of  the  worms,  and  the  reeling  of  silk,  in  India,  and 
an  appreciative  fostering  of  the  genius  of  the  Indian 
people  in  handicraft ;  also  the  mechanical  skill  of  Eng- 
land judiciously  applied,  together  with  the  development 
of  better  artistic  judgment  than  it  has  hitherto  been 
characterised  by,  the  silk  industry  might,  with  us,  as  a 
nation,  be  carried  to  a  higher  degree  of  excellence,  and 
consequently  of  greater  commercial  success  than  it  has 
ever  yet  attained  to. 


/ 


\. 


Fig.  11.    MoRUS  Alba — ^The  Chinese  Mulberry- 


CHAPTER    V 

THE  PRACTICE  OF  SERICULTURE 

Requisites  for  Success  in  Sericulture. — Success  in  seri- 
culture depends  mainly  on  the  proper  feeding  of  the 
caterpillars,  cleanliness  in  all  the  arrangements  for  their 
rearing,  and  the  preservation  of  an  equal  temperature 
in  the  silkworm  house.  These  matters  require  unremit- 
ting attention  from  the  time  the  worms  are  hatched 
until  they  begin  to  spin  their  cocoons.  A  suitable  breed 
of  worms  for  the  particular  climate  is  also,  of  course, 
essential. 

Cultivation  of  the  Mulberry  Tree. — As  the  best  of  all 
silk  is  obtained  from  mulberry- fed  caterpillars,  too  much 
attention  cannot  be  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
mtdberry  ^  tree  wherever  sericulture  is  undertaken.  The 
treatment  required  for  the  trees  is  not  such  as  would 
be  necessary  if  the  mulberry  fruit  were  the  object  for 
which  the  trees  are  grown,  the  requirement  in  this  case 

*  There  are  many  varieties  of  mulberry  trees,  but  the  chief 
are  the  White  Mulberry  of  China,  Morus  Alba,  Fig.  11  ;  the 
Black  Mulberry  of  Italy,  and  the  Morus  Indica,  the  mulberry 
of  India.  Fig.  12. 

25 


\ 


DAMAGED  PAGE(S) 


I 


being  plenty  of  large,  succulent  leaves.  The  best 
and  largest  leaves  are  obtained  from  young  trees  planted 
out  in  such  a  manner  as  to  get  the  maximum  of  sunshine 
and  air.  Young  trees,  three  or  four  years  old,  yield  the 
best  crop  of  leaves,  so  that  a  constant  succession  of 
trees  has  to  be  arranged  for.  They  also  have  to  be  fed 
with  plenty  of  rich  manure,  in  order  to  develop  their 
foliage  as  early  as  possible.  About  500  trees  will  grow 
advantageously  on  an  acre  of  ground,  and  each  tree 
should  yield  from  20  to  30  lbs.  of  leaves  in  a  season. 
20  lbs.  of  leaves  will  feed  a  hundred  silkworms,  and 
from  the  cocoons  of  these,  weighing  about  a  pound, 
an  ounce  and  a  half  to  two  ounces  of  best  silk  can  be 
reeled  ;  the  remainders  of  the  silk  cases  are  made  into 
spun  silk,  which  is  about  half  the  value  of  the  best 
silk  when  twisted  up  into  thread,  and  the  residue 
consisting  of  the  suffocated  insects  is  waste.  ^ 

Wild  Silk  Cultivation. — Success  with  semi-domestic 
and  with  wild  silkworms  must  depend  largely  on  the 
amount  of  attention  that  can  be  given  to  the  business, 
the  more  or  less  suitable  kind  of  trees  on  which  the 
worms  can  feed,  their  freedom  from  marauding  enemies, 
and  the  kind  of  weather  which  prevails  at  the  time  of 
feeding  the  caterpillars.  The  results  of  these  wild  silk 
industries  are  naturally  much  less  rehable  than  those 
of  purely  domestic  sericulture. 

The  term  oak-feeding,  when  applied  to  silkworms, 
must  not  be  understood  too  literally,  for  the  wild  cater- 
pillars thrive  equally  well  on  the  leaves  of  a  great 
variety  of  plants  native  to  the  places  where  they  are 
found. 

Silkworm    House    and    Fittings. — A    well-ventilated 

*  M.  Pariset.  in  his  admirable  work  Les  Industries  de  la  Soie, 
gives  a  great  deal  of  information  on  the  growing  of  mulberry 
trees  and  other  matters  connected  with  sericulture. 


»► 


ll 


THE  PRACTICE  OF  SERlCtJLTURE 


m 


weather-proof  house,  with  arrangements  for  keeping  it 
at  an  even  temperature,  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
menage  of  a  silkworm  farm.  It  must  be  fitted  up  with 
open  shelves  in  such  a  manner  that  all  the  growing 
worms  may  be  easily  inspected  without  disturbing  them, 
and  so  that  any  which  may  show  signs  of  disease  may 
be  quickly  removed. 

A  quaint  but  excellent  description  of  the  fitting  up 
of  a  silkworm  house  is  given  in  the  old  English  book 
which  has  already  been  referred  to,  and  cannot  be 
bettered  :  "  Raise  in  a  convenient,  airy  room  as  many 
shelves,  made  of  dry,  wholesome  wood,  free  from  strong, 
offensive  smell,  as  likewise  let  the  whole  scaffolding  be, 
as  you  may  judge  sufficient  for  your  purpose.  Let  each 
of  the  shelves  be  a  few  inches  narrower  than  the  one 
under  it,  so  that  if  any  of  the  worms  should  fall  off 
from  one  shelf,  the  next  may  catch  them.  Let  the 
whole  scaffolding  stand  at  some  distance  from  the  wall, 
the  better  to  observe  and  attend  them  ;  also  the  better 
to  secure  them  from  the  rats,  mice,  cats,  poultry,  birds, 
etc.,  which  are  their  enemies."  Such  a  simple  arrange- 
ment as  the  above  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  purpose, 
but,  of  course,  in  Italy  and  Ftance,  where  sericulture  is 
a  great  business,  many  patent  fittings  and  methods, 
each  one  said  to  be  better  than  the  other,  are  advocated. 

The  Best  Climate  for  Sericulture. — ^The  strongest  and 
finest  silk  is  obtained  from  cocoons  of  the  species  of  silk 
moths,  found  in  temperate  climates,  which  breed  only 
once  a  year.  The  cold  weather,  which  prevents  the 
larvae  hatching  too  soon,  also  hardens  them.  A  cold 
winter  followed  by  a  genial  spring,  which  coincides  with 
the  mulberry  tree  putting  forth  fresh  leaves,  furnishes 
the  most  favourable  condition  for  the  rearing  of  silk- 
worms. Even  in  the  multivoltine  species,  which  breed 
several  times  in  the  hot  weather  of  tropical  climates,  the 


28 


SILK 


first  crop  of  cocoons  after  the  cool  weather  is  invariably 
the  strongest  and  produces  the  best  silk.  With  regard 
to  silk  produced  in  countries  of  different  climates,  it 
may  be  taken  as  a  rule  that  the  silk  fibre  of  temperate 
climates  is  distinguished  for  strength  and  evenness, 
while  that  of  tropical  ones  is  soft  and  bright,  but  lacking 
in  strength,  that  is,  especially,  if  produced  by  domestic 
silkworms. 

Rearing  the  Silkworms. — In  a  silkworm  farm,  then, 
as  soon  as  the  mulberry  tree  begins  to  bud,  preparation 
must  be  made  for  the  hatching  ot  the  caterpillars. 
When  this  occurs,  our  eighteenth  century  author  says  : 
"  The  httle  worms  are  to  be  laid  on  clean  paper,  which 
is  to  be  changed  every  two  or  three  days,  and  they  are 
to  be  fed  with  clean,  yoimg,  and  dry  mulberry  leaves, 
gradually  increasing  the  quantity  till  they  have  passed 
their  fourth  sickness,  and  are  ready  to  spin  their  web 
or  case.  They  may  not  be  touched  with  the  hand,  nor 
must  any  person  come  near  them  that  smelleth  of 
garlick,  onions,  or  any  other  strong,  offensive  smell, 
which  caution  must  be  observed  at  all  times  whilst  the 
worms  are  feeding." 

Formation  of  the  Cocoon. — When  the  worms  are 
ready  to  spin,  dry  branches  and  twigs  are  placed  ready 
for  them,  and  the  formation  of  the  cocoons,  as  described 
on  page  11,  begins.  It  is  only  necessary  to  add  to  that 
description  that,  in  the  words  of  our  eighteenth  century 
author  :  "  The  first  day  they  make  a  web  ;  the  second 
day  they  form  their  cases  in  the  web  and  cover  them- 
selves all  over  with  silk.  The  third  day  they  are  no 
longer  seen.  And  the  days  following  they  increase  the 
cases  always  by  one  end  of  thread,  which  they  never 
break  off  of  themselves  until  their  cocoon  is  finished." 
These  simple  directions  comprise  and  explain  all  the 
essential  points  in  reference  to  the  treatment  of  the 


«i 


t 


THE  PRACTICE  OF  SERICULTURE 


29 


silkworm  from  the  time  of  hatching  to  that  of  spinnmg, 
but  much  improvement  has  been  made  of  late  years  in 
the  treatment  of  the  fibre  after  it  is  reeled  from  the 
cocoon,  and  the  utilization  of  the  waste  silk  left  after 

reeling. 

Study  of  Sericulture  in  France  and  Italy.— Many  useful 
discoveries  with  regard  to  the  breedmg  and  health  of 
the  worms  have  been  made  at  the  government  schools  of 
sericulture,  both  in  Italy  and  France,  where  all  that 
relates  to  the  welfare  of  the  silkworm  and  the  manipula- 
tion of  silk  fibre  is  investigated  and  taught.  It  still 
remains,  however,  that  success  in  silkworm  farming 
depends  almost  entirely  on  breeding  from  healthy  moths, 
cleanliness  in  the  silkworm  house,  regularity  in  feeding 
the    caterpiUars,    and    attention    to    temperature    and 

ventilation. 

The  Diseases  of  Silkworms.— The  diseases  to  which 
silkworms  are  subject  are  of  two  kinds,  one  kind  chiefly 
attacking  domestic  worms  and  the  other  the  wild  varie- 
ties. The  diseases  of  the  domestic  worms  are  mostly 
forms  of  indigestion,  and  are  hereditary,  so  that  breeding 
from  good  healthy  moths  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Domestic  silkworms  also  have  an  enemy  in  a  parasitic 
fly,  which  attacks  both  the  mulberry  tree  and  the 
worms,  and  often  proves  fatal.  These  have  to  be  carefully 
watched  for  on  the  leaves  gathered  for  the  feeding,  and 
on  the  worms  themselves,  and,  if  possible,  eradicated. 
The  wild  breed  of  worms  are  rarely  subject  to  internal 
disease,  but  their  insect  pests  and  tormentors  are  very 
numerous.  The  prevention  and  destruction  of  these 
would  be  a  useful  subject  for  scientific  investigation, 
but  at  present  little  seems  to  have  been  done  in  the 

matter. 

Eighteenth  Century  Author  on  Silkworm  Breeding.— 
Details  of  a  curious  method  of  improving  the  breed  of 


A.  Plate  4.     Sii  kworm  Breeding 
Extraordinary.     (See  p.  29) 
(Science  Museum  Library,  South  Kensington) 


B,  Plate  4.     Chinese  Cocoon  Keeling 
(See  p.  34) 

{Victoria  and  Albert  Museum) 


THE  PRACTICE  OF  SERICULTURE 


31 


silkworms  is  given  in  a  Book  of  Druggs,  compiled  by 
M.  Pomet,  published  in  France  in  1745,^  and  translated 
into  English  in   1748.     It  is  a  good  specimen  of  the 
wonderful  natural  history  narratives  of  that  period,  and 
is  embellished  with  fine  engravings,  of  which  A,  Plate  4, 
is  an  example.     The  account  M.  Pomet  gives  of  the 
silkworm  is  as  follows  :  "  The  silkworms  are  little  insects 
whose  origin  is  altogether  surprising,  as  well  as  the 
various   shapes   and    changes    they   imdergo.     Several 
authors  have  writ  of  them,  and  among  the  rest  a  Mr. 
Isnard,  in  a  little  treatise  of  his,  at  the  254th  page, 
gives  this  account  of  their  original  :   *  At  the  time  when 
the  mulberry  leaves  are  ready  to  gather,  they  take  a 
cow,  which  is  almost  calving,  and  feed  her  wholly  on 
mulberry  leaves,  without  giving  her  anything  else  to 
eat  of  herbs,  hay,  or  the  Hke.     When  she  has  calved, 
they  continue  this  for  eight  days  longer ;    after  which 
they  let  the  cow  and  calf  both  feed  upon  this  for  some 
days  together  without  any  other  mixture,  as  before. 
They  kill  the  calf,  after  it  has  been  satiated  with  the 
mulberry  leaves  and  cow's  milk  ;  then  chop  it  in  pieces, 
to  the  very  feet,  and  without  throwing  anything  away, 
put  all  together— flesh,  blood,  bones,  skin,  and  inwards 
— into  a  wooden  trough  and  set  it  atop  of  the  house 
till  it  is  corrupted.     From  this  will  presently  proceed 
little  worms,  which  they  lay  on  mulberry  leaves  to  rear 
them  afterwards,  just  as  they  do  those  which  are  pro- 
duced from  eggs.     And  these  silkworms  are  abundantly 
more  fruitful  than  those  from  eggs,  so  that  those  who 
deal  considerably  in  them,  never  fail  every  ten  or  twelve 
years  to  raise  them  in  this  way.'  " 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  if  any  purchaser  of 
M.    Pomet's   book   experimented   on   this   method   of 

1  Pomet's  History  of  Druggs,  1745.      Library  of  Royal  College 
of  Science,  South  Kensington. 


32 


SILK 


l|r| 


improving  his  breed  of  silkworms,  and,  if  so,  with  what 
results. 

Reeling  Silk  Fibre  from  Cocoons. — ^The  first  of  the  many 
processes  which  silken  fibre  has  to  undergo,  in  prepara- 
t  ion  for  use  in  the  textile  arts,  is  reeling  from  the  cocoon. 
This  is  a  work  of  great  delicacy,  and  much  of  the  success 
of  the  after  operations,  in  which  silk  is  used,  depends  on 
this  work  being  properly  done. 

In  Europe,  at  the  present  time,  reeling  is  for  the  most 
part  done  in  factories,  so  that  it  is  not,  as  formerly,  one 
of  the  operations  of  the  silk  farm.  At  the  farm  the 
cocoons,  after  the  worms  have  finished  spinning,  are 
fumed  or  subjected  to  a  degree  of  heat  which  kills  the 
creature  inside.  They  are  then  stored  up  against  the 
time  when  the  merchant  calls  who  purchases  them  by 
weight.  The  value  of  cocoons  averages  about  Is.  6d. 
per  lb. 


Fig.  12.     MoRUS  Indica — The  Indian  Mulberrv 


CHAPTER    VI 


REELING  FROM  THE  COCOONS 


Effect   of   the   Moth   Emerging.— If  instead  of   being 
fumed,  as  described  in  the  last  chapter,  the  cocoons  are 
left  to  themselves,  in  from  twenty-one  to  forty  days, 
according  to  the  temperature,  the  moth  will  emerge 
from  the  chrysalis,  and,  breaking  through  the  silken 
fibres  of  its  cell,  will  spoil  the  thread  for  reeling  off. 
The  cocoon  will  then  only  be  fit  for  waste  or  spun  silk. 
Unless,  therefore,  the  worm  or  chrysalis  be  killed,  no 
time  must  be  lost  in  reehng  off  the  silk.     When  thus 
reeled  from  the  live  cocoon,  the  silk  is  found  to  be  more 
lustrous  than  is  the  case  when  the  creature  is  pre- 
viously killed.    This  accounts,  in  some  measure,  for 
the  brilliance  of  Chinese  woven  fabrics  and  silk  embroi- 
deries of  to-day,  as  well  as  for  the  superior  lustre  of 
much  of  the  raw  silk  exported  from  China.     Chinese 
silk  farmers  still,  for  the  most  part,  reel  their  silk  from 
the  five  cocoons,  and  it  is  collected  by  merchants  who 
travel  round  the  country  districts  and  purchase  the 
hanks  of  reeled  silk  from  the  producers.   The  same  system 
used  to  prevail  in  France  and  Italy,  but  in  these  coun- 
tries and  also,  to  some  extent,  now  in  China  and  Japan, 
it  has  been  superseded  by  the  system  of  factory-reeling. 
This  is  in  order  to  meet  the  requirement  of  evenness  in 
size,  which  is  so  vitally  necessary  for  modern  methods 
of  weaving  by  power.     One  beautiful  quahty  of  silk  has, 
therefore,  to  be  sacrificed  in  order  to  make  it  commer- 
cially useful.     It  is  sad  to  meet  at  every  turn  these 

33 

3-(»468) 


34 


SILK 


necessary  sacrifices  which  have  to  be  made  all  along  the 
line  of  modern  scientifically  arranged  manufacture. 

Chinese  Cocoon  Boiling  and  Reeling. — B,  Plate  4,  is 
another  drawing  from  the  Chinese  book  of  sericulture. 
It  depicts  the  cocoon  reeling  in  a  Chinese  silk  farm,  and 
will  do  equally  well  for  to-day  as  for  the  thirteenth 
century  in  which  it  was  drawn.  The  poem  describing 
the  work  was  written,  it  is  said,  by  the  son  of  an 
emperor  of  the  Sung  dynasty  early  in  the  tenth  century.  ^ 
Dr.  Bushell  has  paraphrased  it  thus  : — 

"  The  scent  of  cocoons  boiling  fills  the  street. 
The  women  in  each  house  in  busy  bands, 
With  smiling  faces  gather  round  the  stove, 
And  rub  together  their  steam-scalded  hands  ; 
They  throw  the  bright  cocoons  into  the  basin. 
And  wind  out  silk  in  long,  unbroken  skein. 
When  evening  comes  they've  earned  a  moment's  rest 
To  chat  with  friends  outside  the  walled  lane." 

It  will  be  rightly  gathered  from  this  Chinese  poem 
that  the  cocoons  have  to  be  steeped  in  hot  water  before 
reeling.  This  has  to  be  done  in  order  to  soften  the  silk 
gum  and  set  the  fibre  free.  The  outer  web  or  loose  case 
of  the  cocoon  is  brushed  away,  and  then  the  end  of  the 
silk,  forming  the  true  cocoon,  is  readily  found.  This 
thread  is  so  fine  that  thirteen  hundred  yards  weigh  only 
the  seventeenth  part  of  an  ounce.  A  thread  of  such 
extreme  tenuity  is  of  no  practical  use,  so  that  six 
cocoons  at  least  have  to  be  reeled  together,  and  their 
fibres  twisted  in  order  to  make  the  finest  usable  thread. 
Fig.  13  is  a  diagram  of  the  simple  machine  originally 
used  for  thus  reeling  several  cocoons  together.  Although 
it  is  primitive,  it  is  perfectly  adapted  to  its  purjx)se, 
and  contains  the  essentials  of  all  reefing  machinery. 
No.  1  is  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  machine,  and  No.  2  is 
a  side  elevation. 

*  Chine  Art.     Dr.  Bushell. 


REELING  FROM  THE  COCOONS 


35 


In  No.  1 ,  A  A  is  a  small  tank,  in  which  water  is  held 
and  kept  by  a  stove,  or  some  other  means,  nearly  at 
boiling  point.  Into  this  tank  of  hot  water  a  number 
of  cocoons  are  steeped.  The  side  of  the  tank  is  shown 
at  A,  No.  2. 

Above  the  tank  a  glass  rod  is  fixed,  marked  B.  Ci 
and  C2  are  two  other  fixed  bars,  having  glass  eyes  at 
the  places  marked  D  D  D  D  in  No.  1. 


Fig.  13.     Reeling  Machine 

E  E  in  both  Nos.  is  a  pair  of  skeleton  wheels  joined 
together  by  smooth  bars,  and  suitable  for  winding  silk 
upon.  These  wheels  are  fixed  upon  one  axle,  and  are 
caused  to  revolve  simultaneously  by  means  of  a  strap 
which  runs  on  the  pulley  F. 

We  will  suppose  the  tank  to  be  filled  with  hot  water  in 
which  a  number  of  cocoons  have  been  immersed  long 
enough  to  partially  dissolve  the  gum.     The  operator 


DAMAGED  PAGE(S) 


m 


SILK 


finds  the  ends  of  fibre  on  six  cocoons  at  least,  draws  the 
six  ends  together  over  the  rod  B,  through  the  eye  D  in 
rod  Ci  also  through  the  opposite  eye  D  in  rod  C2,  and 
fixes  it  to  the  winding  wheel  E.  She  next  finds  the 
ends  of  six  other  cocoons,  passes  them  over  B,  through 
the  vacant  eye  in  Q,  and  then  twists  them  several 
times  round  the  other  six  threads  before  passing  them 
through  the  vacant  eye  D  in  C2,  and  fixing  them  also 
to  the  wheel  E.  They  now  appear,  as  in  the  complete 
diagram,  with  the  twist,  or  crossieur,  as  it  is  called, 
marked  G,  in  the  centre  between  the  four  D's. 

This  crossieur  is  the  essential  part  of  the  contrivance. 
As  the  silk  is  wound  on  to  the  wheel  E  in  two  skeins, 
the  twisting  together  at  the  crossier  consolidates  the 
gummy  threads  into  one  and  presses  the  filaments 
together.  It  also  cleans  them  from  a  great  many 
impurities,  dries  them,  and  tends  to  make  them  even. 

When  sufficient  silk  is  on  the  wheel  to  make  up  the 
two  skeins,  it  is  taken  ofi  and  carefully  stored  imtil 
purchased  by  the  travelling  silk  merchant. 

Factory  Filature  Machines. — ^The  various  machines, 
used  in  filature  factories  for  reeling  the  silk,  all  provide 
in  one  way  or  another  for  making  this  essential  crossieur. 

Evenness  of  Thread  Essential. — ^The  most  important 
thing  to  observe  in  the  reeling  of  silk  fibre,  where  even- 
ness of  size  in  the  thread  is  so  essential,  is  the  keeping 
of  the  same  number  of  cocoons  in  action.  This  is  where 
domestic  reeling  is  said  to  fail.  In  a  factory  the  reelers 
are  strictly  overlooked,  and  there  is  trouble  if  a  winder 
be  caught  reeling  less  than  the  proper  number  of  cocoons. 
Factory-reeled  silk  is,  therefore,  found  to  be  much  more 
reliable  as  to  size  than  that  which  is  still,  as  China  silk 
for  the  most  part  is,  reeled  by  the  silk  farmer  and  his 
family. 


A 


CHAPTER    vn 


SILK  THROWING  AND  WINDING 


Silk  Throwing  Processes. — The  several  winding,  twist- 
ing, and  doubling  processes,  called  silk  throwing,  which 
the  fibre  has  to  undergo  before  it  can  be  dyed  in  pre- 
paration for  weaving,  embroidery,  or  ordinary  sewing, 
will  be  best  described  in  an  account  of  a  visit  the  author 
paid  to  a  throwing  mill,  near  London,  which  has  been 
in  operation  for  over  a  century,  and  is  still  fuller  than 
ever  of  this  interesting  work. 

Visit  to  a  Silk  Throwing  Mill. — At  the  first  a  book, 
the  name  given  to  a  large  bundle  of  raw  silk,  white  and 
glistening,  weighing  several  pounds,  and  containing  an 
incalculable  length  of  reeled  fibre,  was  opened.     It  con- 
sisted of  a  great  number  of  smaller  bundles,  or  mosses, 
and  these  again  were  made  up  of  skeins  which  had  come 
I     off   the   wheels   of   many   different   reeling   machines. 
I    This  book  of  silk  had  been  collected  from  the  silk  farms, 
\  of  several  districts  in  China,  by  travelling  dealers.    After 
j  being  opened  it  had  first  to  be  carefully  divided  up  into 
1  separate  skeins  and  sorted  into  different  grades,  excel- 
I  lence  consisting  in  freedom  from  inequalities,  such  as 
\  knots,  knibs,  or  little  loose  ends  of  filament.     Each 
iskein  was  hung  upon  a  large,  smooth,  wooden  peg, 
[which  looked  as  if  it  had  done  duty  for  one  century  and 
iwas  good  for  another,  opened  out,  classified,  and  put, 
Jaccording  to  quahty,  into  one  of  the  five  baskets  placed 
I  to  receive  it. 

I    Washing. — After  being  sorted,  the  silk  has   next    to 
^•e  washed  with  a  little  pure  soap.    A  large,  airy  room 

37 


38 


StLk 


SlLK  tltROWlNG  AND  WtNDlNG 


3e 


was  shown  filled  with  the  washed  and  sorted  silk  hanging 

to  dry. 

First  Winding.— The  next  process  shown  was  the  first 
winding  from  the  reeled  skeins  on  to  bobbins.  The 
machines  on  which  this  is  done  are  long  frames  set  end- 
ways to  the  light,  and  having  both  sides  fitted  up  with 
a  series  of  winding  arrangements  such  as  the  two  depicted 
in  the  diagram  (Fig.  14,  No.  4),  one  girl  being  able  to 
superintend  the  winding  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  skems 
at  a  time. 


® 


©(©-iniulo© 


® 


Fig.  14.    Winding  Machine 

The  "  Swifts. '  *— The  skein  is  placed  on  a  light  skeleton 
reel  called  a  swift.  It  is  made  of  lance-wood,  and  so 
constructed  that  skeins  of  various  sizes  may  readily  be 
stretched  on  it.  In  the  diagram  (Fig.  14,  No.  1),  A,  is 
the  swift.  It  consists  of  a  central  wooden  core,  or 
cylinder,  which  moves  freely  on  an  axle.  In  this  core 
six  pairs  of  thin,  elastic  rods  (B)  are  fixed,  slightly  • 
inclining  outwards  from  each  other,  as  in  No.  2.     "a 


h 


piefce  of  strong,  thin  cord  or  wire  is  looped  near  the 
ends  of  each  pair  of  rods,  so  as  to  bring  them  parallel, 
as  in  No.  3.  The  elasticity  of  the  rods  fixes  the  loops 
in  whatever  position  they  may  be  placed.  These  loops, 
being  moved  up  or  down  the  rods,  allow  for  different 
sized  skeins  of  silk  being  stretched  on  them.  Skeins  of 
silk  are  shown  on  the  two  swifts  at  No.  4,  Fig.  14,  ready 

for  unwinding.  ^      ,.  x- 

The    Friction    Wheel.— At  Fig.   14,  No.   1,  distin- 
guished by  an  arrow,  is  a  wooden  wheel,  an  inch  and 
a  half  thick  having  its  edges  covered  with  leather. 
This  wheel  is  kept  revolving,  by  some  motive  power,  at 
any  speed  determined  on.     It  revolves  in  the  direction  of 
the  arrow.      D  is  a  bobbin,  shown  separately  at  E, 
which  is  firmly  fixed  on  a  thick  wire  axle.     At  one  end 
of  the  axle  there  is  a  cyUnder  of  lead,  which  projects 
from  the  end  of  the  bobbin,  and,  when  the  latter  is  m 
position  on  the  frame,  rests  upon  the  leather  with  which 
the  edge  of  the  flat  wooden  wheel  is  covered.     As  the 
wooden  wheel  revolves,  the  weight  of  the  lead  cyhnder 
resting  upon  it  causes  the  bobbin  to  revolve  with  it,  but 
in  the  opposite  direction.     This  is  called  a  friction  motion, 
and  is  the  only  possible  one  for  winding  successfully 
such  a  deUcate  thread  as  silk. 

Importance  of  the  Friction  Motion.— The  friction 
motion  is  of  such  importance  in  aU  silk-windmg 
machinery,  that  the  reason  of  the  necessity  for  its  use 
must  here  be  pointed  out. 

In  skeins  of  such  delicate  thread  as  the  silk  winder  has 
to  deal  with,  the  several  strands  in  a  skein  often  get 
slightly  entangled  by  twisting  round  each  other,  or 
because  of  a  small  knot  or  loop  or  a  slight  dampness 
which  renders  them  sticky.  This  temporary  catch 
would  cause  the  thread  to  break,  if  the  bobbin,  on  to 
which  it  was  being  wound,  could  not  quite  easily  be 


40 


StLK 


held  back  by  the  strength  of  the  thread  itself.  Any 
arrangement  of  pulleys  or  cogged  wheels  would  not 
allow  of  this,  but  the  only  resistance  to  the  thread,  if  a 
friction  motion  is  used,  is  offered  by  the  weight  of  the 
little  cylinder  of  lead,  which  rests  on  the  edge  of  the 
friction  wheel. 

The  Sliding  Bar  and  Guides. — ^To  resume  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  winding  frame,  Fig.  14.  At  F,  Nos.  1  and  4 
is  a  bar  that  runs  in  front  the  whole  length  of  the  winding 
frame  and  has  fixed  to  it,  in  front  of  each  bobbin,  an 
upright  wire  which  has  a  twisted  end.  This  is  shown 
enlarged  at   G2. 

H  is  a  slot  in  which  the  bobbin  can  rest  when  taken  off 
the  friction  wheel  for  the  purpose  of  mending  the  thread. 

Winding  Procedure. — Let  us  suppose  that  a  hank  or 
skein  of  washed  and  dried  raw  silk  is  placed  on  the 
swift  as  at  A,  No.  4.  The  winder  finds  the  end  of  the 
thread,  and  slightly  wetting  it,  fixes  it  on  to  the  bobbin 
which  rests  in  the  slot  H.  At  the  same  time  she  passes 
the  thread  into  the  twist  of  the  guide  wire  G.  She  next 
places  the  bobbin  in  the  position  shown  at  D,  No.  1, 
with  its  lead  cylinder  resting  on  the  edge  of  the  friction 
wheel,  which  is  revolving.  The  bobbin  immediately 
begins  to  turn  and  wind  the  silk  upon  itself,  drawing 
the  swift  gently  round  as  it  does  so.  Letter  B  (No.  4) 
now  represents  the  position.  It  will  at  once  be  seen 
that  another  motion  is  required  in  order  to  spread  the 
silk  evenly,  as  it  winds,  from  end  to  end  of  the  bobbin. 
This  is  effected  by  a  motion  causing  the  bar  F  to  move 
regularly  from  side  to  side  within  the  required  limits. 
To  provide  for  this  motion,  which  must  be  capable  of 
being  very  exactly  regulated,  is  the  most  difficult  part 
of  the  machine  to  construct.  There  are  many  spreading 
motions  in  use,  but  all  have  some  defect  to  set  off 
against  their  excellences. 


I 


SlLk  THROWING   AND  WINDING 


41 


rfj  V 


! 


f 


When  all  the  machine  is  working  properly,  the  winding 
goes  merrily  on,  and  it  is  astonishing  how  seldom  the 
tiny  threads  of  silk  break  and  require  mending. 

Cleaning  the  Thread.— After  being  neatly  wound  on 
to  bobbins,  which  hold  several  hundred  yards  of  con- 
tinuous thread,  the  silk  is  carried  to  the  cleaning  room, 
where  any  large  knots,  ends,  or  stubs,  which  may  still 
remain  on  it,  are  removed  by  the  contrivance  shown  in 
Fig.  15,  several  sets  of  which  are  fixed  on  a  frame  similar 
to  the  winding  frame  just  described  ;  the  only  difference 
l)etween  the  machines  being  that  the  bobbin  of  wound 


Fig.  15.     Cleaning  Machine 

silk  takes  the  place  of  the  skein  on  the  swift,  and  that 
there  is  an  additional  fitting  E  on  the  guiding  bar  F. 
This  fitting  is  a  double  knife  very  accurately  set,  and 
shaped,  and  sharpened  in  such  a  manner  that  the  silk, 
as  it  passes  between  the  blades,  on  to  the  bobbin  D,  is 
cleaned  from  all  unevenness  and  hairy  filaments.  The 
front  view  of  the  knife  is  given  separately  at  G. 

Throwing  (sometimes  called  Spinning). — ^The  next  pro- 
cess is  sometimes  called  spinning,  but  more  properly 


,tW 


V 


42 


SILK 


throwing.  Spinning  implies  not  only  twisting  the  thread, 
but  joining,  by  means  of  twisting,  numbers  of  short 
filaments  together  into  a  continuous  thread.  Throwing, 
however,  merely  means  the  closer  and  regulated  twisting  of 
an  already  loosely  made,  coini)ound,  continuous  thread. 

The  throwing  frame  is  fitted  up  with  a  great  number 
of  spindles,  to  which  one  person  can  attend.  The  work 
is,  however,  very  resix)nsible,  and  requires  great  accuracy 
so  that  a  very  comi)etent  mechanic  has  to  be  in  charge 
here. 

The  effective  action  of  the  throwing  frame  depends  on 
the  revolving  of  two  sets  of  bobbins  at  different,  nicely 
adjusted  speeds.  By  the  proportions  of  the  two  revolu- 
tions, one  to  the  other,  more  or  less  amount  of  tivist  is 
given  to  the  thread  thrown.  Threads  are  required  to 
have  various  amounts  of  twist  on  them,  according  to 
the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended. 

It  will  only  be  necessary  to  describe  one  spindle,  and 
its  action  for  our  present  purpose. 

The  Spindle  and  Flier. — Fig.  16  shows  one  spindle  of 
the  throwing  frame  fitted  up  with  two  bobbins  and  the 
flier.  The  spindle  is  marked  A,  the  bobbin  of  cleaned 
silk  C,  the  flier  D,  and  the  bobbin  of  thrown  silk  E. 

The  si)indle  A,  between  the  two  bearings  B  B,  is 
caused  to  revolve  by  a  rapidly  moving  leather  belt, 
which  presses  closely  on  the  whole  series  of  spindles. 
The  bobbin  C,  on  which  the  thread  to  be  twisted  is 
wound,  is  firmly  fixed  on  the  spindle  and  moves  with  it. 
The  Flier  D  has  at  its  centre  a  small  cylinder,  which  fits 
loosely  on  the  top  end  of  the  spindle,  and  is  kept  from 
flying  off  by  a  small  screw  or  button.  The  cylinder  has 
a  groove  in  it  round  which  a  wire  is  twisted,  and  then 
bent  into  the  shape  shown  in  the  diagram,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  ends  of  the  wire  are  twisted  into  Ioojjs 
or  eyes.     The  bobbin  E,  which  receives  the  twisted  silk, 


SILK  THROWING  AND  WINDING 


43 


13  fastened  to  the  others  of  the  set,  and  they  revolve 
steadily  all  together.  The  silk  from  the  bobbin  C  is 
passed  through  the  eyes  of  the  flier,  also  through  the 


.(^^: — 


Fig.  16.    Spindle  and  Flier* 

eye  of  the  guiding  bar  F,  and  so  on  to  the  bobbin  E. 
Now.  if  the  bobbin  C  were  loose  and  the  silk  were  drawn 
from'it  on  to  the  bobbin  E.  it  would  only  be  very  slightly 
twisted.  But,  as  the  bobbin  C  is  fixed  to  the  spindle,  if 
the  latter  be  made  to  revolve  so  quickly  that  the  silk 
unwinds  quicker  than  the  bobbin  E  receives  it,  the  flier 
»  The  length  of  thread  between  the  two  bobbins  is  about  24*. 


\\^\ 


/ 


\ 


-6<i'^. 


(4 


I 


42 


SILK 


throwing.  Spinning  implies  not  only  twisting  the  thread, 
but  joining,  by  means  of  twisting,  numbers  of  short 
filaments  together  into  a  continuous  thread.  Throwing, 
however,  merely  means  the  closer  and  regulated  twisting  of 
an  already  loosely  made,  compound,  continuous  thread. 
The  throwing  frame  is  fitted  up  with  a  great  number 
of  spindles,  to  which  one  person  can  attend.  The  work 
is,  however,  very  resjxjnsible,  and  requires  great  accuracy 
so  that  a  very  comj^etent  mechanic  has  to  be  in  charge 
here. 

The  effective  action  of  the  throwing  frame  depends  on 
the  revolving  of  two  sets  of  bobbins  at  different,  nicely 
adjusted  speeds.  By  the  proportions  of  the  two  revolu- 
tions, one  to  the  other,  more  or  less  amount  of  iwisi  is 
given  to  the  thread  thrown.  Threads  are  required  to 
have  various  amounts  of  twist  on  them,  according  to 
the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended. 

It  will  only  be  necessary  to  describe  one  spindle,  and 
its  action  for  our  present  purpose. 

The  Spindle  and  Flier. — Fig.  16  shows  one  spindle  of 
the  throwing  frame  fitted  up  with  two  bobbins  and  the 
flier.  The  spindle  is  marked  A,  the  bobbin  of  cleaned 
silk  C,  the  flier  D,  and  the  bobbin  of  thrown  silk  E. 

The  s])indle  A,  between  the  two  bearings  B  B,  is 
caused  to  revolve  by  a  rapidly  moving  leather  belt, 
which  presses  closely  on  the  whole  series  of  spindles. 
The  bobbin  C,  on  which  the  thread  to  be  twisted  is 
wound,  is  firmly  fixed  on  the  spindle  and  moves  with  it. 
The  Flier  D  has  at  its  centre  a  small  cylinder,  which  fits 
loosely  on  the  top  end  of  the  spindle,  and  is  kept  from 
flying  off  by  a  small  screw  or  button.  The  cylinder  has 
a  groove  in  it  round  which  a  wire  is  twisted,  and  then 
bent  into  the  shape  shown  in  the  diagram,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  ends  of  the  wire  are  twisted  into  loops 
or  eyes.     The  bobbin  E,  which  receives  the  twisted  silk, 


SILK  THROWING  AND  WINDING 


43 


15  fastened  to  the  others  of  the  set,  and  they  revolve 
steadily  all  together.  The  silk  from  the  bobbin  C  is 
passed  through  the  eyes  of  the  flier,  also  through  the 


liJS 


Fig.  16.     Spindle  and  Flier* 

eye  of  the  guiding  bar  F,  and  so  on  to  the  bobbin  E. 
Now,  if  the  bobbin  C  were  loose  and  the  silk  were  drawn 
from  it  on  to  the  bobbin  E,  it  would  only  be  very  slightly 
twisted.  But,  as  the  bobbin  C  is  fixed  to  the  spindle,  if 
the  latter  be  made  to  revolve  so  quickly  that  the  silk 
unwinds  quicker  than  the  bobbin  E  receives  it,  the  flier 
»  The  length  of  thread  between  the  two  bobbins  is  about  24*. 


<  I 

m 


ir<Ra5**= 


jfi 


t 


44 


SILK 


will  carry  the  thread  firmly  round  and  give  it  as  many 
twists  as  the  differing  speeds  of  the  two  bobbins  make 
possible.  For  some  kinds  of  weaving  and  for  sewing 
silks  as  many  as  sixty  twists  to  an  inch  are  given  in  the 
first  throwing.  The  thread  thus  produced  is  the  finest 
ever  used  in  weaving,  and  is  called  singles,  although,  as 
we  have  seen,  it  is  made  up  of  at  least  twelve  strands 
of  silkworm  fibre. 

Doubling. — Thread  of  this  degree  of  fineness  is  much 
too  slender  for  most  weaving  and  embroidery  purposes. 


Fig.  17.     Doubler 

It,  therefore,  has  to  go  through  yet  another  process, 
called  doubling  or  folding,  that  is,  winding  two,  three, 
lour,  or  more  threads  together  to  increase  its  size  and 
strength.  Fig.  17  shows  one  of  the  methods  by  which 
this  is  done. 

The  bobbin  A  moved,  by  the  friction  wheel  B,  has  at 
the  end  of  its  spindle  a  rachet  wheel,  into  contact  with 
which  the  lever  C  comes,  when  it  is  in  the  position 
shown  in  the  diagram,  and  stops  it  from  revolving. 
The  threads  to  be  folded  together  are  on  the  bobbins 


il 
fl 

Af  r 

t 

f 


SILK  THROWING  AND  WINDING 


45 


DDD.    They  are  carried  over  the  rod  E  and  each 

separately  threaded  through  the  eye  of  three  bent  wires, 

the  wires  themselves  being  loosely  fixed  to  a  common 

centre  F.     The  threads,  after  passing  through  the  eyes 

of  the  bent  wires,  are  carried  together  through  a  single 

eye  (G)  in  the  guiding  bar,  and  then  on  to  the  bobbin  A. 

As  the  threads  are  being  wound,  the  three  bent  wires 

will  be  held  up,  and  the  lever  C  is  so  balanced  that  it 

is  normally  in  the  position  shown  by  the  dotted  hne  H  H. 

This  leaves  the  bobbin  A  free  to  revolve.     If,  however, 

a  thread  breaks  or  a  bobbin  runs  out  of  silk,  the  bent 

wire,  through  which  it  was  threaded,  drops  on  to  the 

crosspiece  of  the  lever  C,  causes  it  to  take  the  position 

shown  in  the  diagram,  and  by  coming  in  contact  with 

the  teeth  of  the  ratchet  wheel,  the  lever  stops  the  bobbin. 

The  folded  thread  on  the  bobbin  A  has  to  be  again 

thrown,  so  as  to  make  it  solid  and  compact.     This  tirne 

the  twist  is  given  in  the  opposite  direction,  which  knits 

the  threads  together,  so  that  they  have  no  tendency  to 

untwist. 

'  When  the  second  throwing  is  done,  we  have  a  cord  of 
silk,  finer  than  a  human  hair,  made  up  of  from  thirty- 
six  to  fifty  threads,  closely  twisted  and  compacted 
together,  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  knots,  loops,  or 

-other  defects. 

Steaming.— In  order  the  more  firmly  to  set  the  twist, 
or  bead,  as  the  throwster  calls  it,  the  silk  is  again  wound 
from  the  small  bobbin  on  to  large  skeleton  reels,  which 
are  placed  with  the  skeins  on  them  in  a  steam  chest. 
When  taken  out  and  dried,  they  are  ready  for  stztng, 
that  is,  sorting  into  accurate  grades  of  thickness. 

Sizing.— The  size  of  silk  is  ascertained  by  weighing 
very  carefully  a  certain  length  of  thread.  The  specific 
gravity  of  silk  always  being  the  same,  sizing  by  weight 
is   found    to   be   most   accurate   and    dependable.     In 


,1 

1 


fl 


■♦, 


IE 


amm 


46 


SILK 


I 


SILK  THROWING    AND    WINDING 


47 


England  a  skein  of   1,000  yards  is  weighed  either  in 
deniers,  a  French  weight,  or  drams. 

Skeining.— The  silken  thread  having  thus  been  graded 
for  size  and  quality,  it  has  to  be  rewound  into  skeins  of 
uniform  length.  The  usual  length,  for  what  is  called 
grant-reeled  silk,  is  now  10,000  yards  of  continuous 
thread.  The  skeins  are  so  ingeniously  crossed  and  laced 
together  that  they  cannot  readily  get  out  of  order  in 
handling. 

When  all  these  operations  are  finished,  the  hard  silk, 
with  the  gum  in  it,  is  ready  for  weaving  fabrics  that  are 
to  be  dyed  in  the  piece,  or  for  the  dyer  to  exercise  his 
art  upon. 

The  Perfect  Thread.— In  the  throwing  mill  we  have 
seen  the  silk  go  through  the  following  processes  in  suc- 
cession:  Sorting,  washing,  drying,  winding,  cleaning, 
throwing,  doubling  or  folding,  second  throwing,  steam- 
ing, sizing  and  reeling,  and  in  all  these  stages  infinite 
care  has  had  to  be  exercised  in  order  to  produce  a 
perfect  thread. 

Historical  Note.— The  introduction  of  silk  throwing  by 
machinery  into  this  country  is  one  of  the  romances  of 
trade.  Previous  to  1 7 1 7  the  secret  of  the  process  itself,  as 
well  as  the  kind  of  machinery  used,  was  confined  to  Italy. 
In  that  year,  John  Lombe  obtained  a  patent  of  the  English 
Government,  and  started  the  first  successful  silk  throwing 
mill.  He  had  secretly  gone  to  Italy  and  remained  there 
some  years  working  as  an  ordinary  labourer  in  a  silk 
mill.  Being  a  good  mechanician,  he  learned  the  secret 
of  the  machinery  required  and  the  method  of  treating 
the  fibre.  He  was  discovered,  and  had  great  difficulty 
in  escaping  with  his  life.  He  did  escape,  however,  and 
built  the  first  silk  mill  at  Derby.  He  had  immediate 
success,  but  only  lived  four  years  to  enjoy  it.  The 
business  was  carried  on  by  his  cousin,  who  afterwards 


« 


i 


* 


became  Sir  Thomas  Lombe,  and  the  possessor  of  a  great 
fortime.  John  Lombe's  death  is  said  to  have  been  due 
to  poison  given  to  him  by  a  woman  who  followed  him 
from  Italy,  but  whether  her  motive  was  pubhc  or  private 
vengeance,  has  never  been  ascertained. 

Other  silk  mills  were  foimded  during  the  eighteenth 
century  at  Southport,  Macclesfield,  Congleton,  Leek, 
St.  Albans,  and  many  other  places,  and  most  of  them 
are  still  working.  It  is  gratifying  to  know  that, 
although  other  countries  produce  the  fibre,  Enghsh 
manipulation  of  it  is  unrivalled. 

Spun  Silk. — Before  leaving  the  subject  of  the  prepara- 
tion of  silk  thread,  it  is  necessary  to  mention  spun  silky 
which  is  a  very  useful  and  beautiful  thread,  and  from 
which  many  most  artistic  and  durable  fabrics  are  to  be 
made  at  a  cost  of  about  half  the  price  of  best  silk.  It 
is  made  from  the  waste  silk  covers  of  cocoons,  from 
cocoons  out  of  which  the  moth  has  broken  its  way,  or 
of  any  raw  silk,  which  for  some  reason  or  other  cannot 
be  reeled  off.  It  is  made  also  from  the  fluff  and  cleanings 
which  are  gathered  from  the  best  silk  as  it  passes  through 
the  throwing  mills.  In  fact,  all  the  waste  silk  of  what- 
ever kind  is  collected  together,  torn  to  filaments,  and 
spun  in  the  same  way  as  cotton  fibre,  a  process,  it  would 
occupy  too  much  space  to  describe  here,  and,  in  fact, 
it  belongs  to  the  subjects  of  cotton,  wool  or  linen,  all  of 
which  fibres  are  spim,  or  joined  up  into  thread,  in  the 
same  manner  as  spun  silk.  ^ 

*  A  description  of  Cotton  Spinning  will  be  found  in  the 
volume  of  the  series  dealing  with  Cotton, 


CHAPTER    VIII 


SILK   DYEING 


Yam  and  Piece  Dyeing. — ^The  next  step,  in  the  pre- 
paration of  silken  thread  for  use,  is  that  of  dyeing.  This 
is  done  while  the  silk  is  in  skeins,  when  it  is  to  be  used 
for  embroidery,  sewing,  or  best  weaving.  Many  cheap 
kinds  of  silk  fabrics  are  woven  "  in  gum,"  that  is,  woven 
of  unboiled  silk.  In  such  cases  the  woven  material  is 
boiled  and  dyed  in  the  piece.  ^  Yam-dyeing  has,  how- 
ever, many  advantages,  and  the  great  bulk  of  silk  goods 
are  woven  of  yam -dyed  thread. 

Wherever  done,  to  any  great  extent,  the  process  of 
dyeing  silk,  whether  in  ancient  or  modem  times,  is  very 
similar.  It  will  be  best,  therefore,  now  briefly  to 
describe  the  procedure  of  a  modem  dyer  dealing  with 
an  ordinary  parcel  of  silk.  Machinery  is  not,  to  a  great 
extent,  used  in  dyeing,  except  where  very  large  quan- 
tities of  yarn  have  to  be  dyed  of  the  same  colour,  but 
the  drying  of  the  skeins,  after  dyeing,  is  now  generally 
done  by  means  of  the  hydro-extractor,  to  save  time. 

Previously  to  being  dyed,  the  skeins  of  silk  have  to 
be  boiled,  in  order  to  extract  the  gum.  Before  being 
boiled,  silk  is  harsh  and  wiry,  rather  like  fine  horsehair. 
It  also  frequently  has  some  colour  of  its  own.  Italian 
silk  is  yellow,  Chinese  and  Japanese  semi-wild  silk  is 
light  fawn  colour,  Indian  wild  silk  is  darker  fawn  colour, 
Chinese  best  silk  is  nearly  white,  and  so  on  ;  but  the 
boiling  extracts  the  colour,  with  the  gum,  and  leaves  the 

*  Piece  dyeing  is  now  carried  to  a  high  pitch  of  perfection, 
the  threads  of  warp  and  weft  being  chemically  treated  before 
weaving,  so  that  each  is  only  sensitive  to  a  certain  range  of 
colours.  This  makes  it  possible  to  piece-dye  shot  effects,  a 
proceeding  which  had  hitherto  been  thought  impossible. 

48 


SILK   DYEING 


49 


silk  soft,  white,  and  lustrous.  It  also  reduces  the  weight 
considerably.  Sixteen  ounces  of  silk  are  reduced  to 
twelve,  more  or  less,  by  the  boiling. 

In  order  to  boil  the  silk  without  injury,  the  skeins  are 
carefully  loosened  and  tied  in  convenient  bundles  with 
a  smooth  cord.  They  are  then  packed  in  soft  muslin 
bags,  and  immersed  in  water  in  which  a  quantity  of 
dyer's  soap  has  been  dissolved.  Heat  is  then  applied 
to  the  copper,  in  which  the  silk  is  placed,  and  the  water 
is  allowed  to  boil  gently  for  about  two  hours.  When 
sufficiently  boiled,  the  bags  are  taken  out  of  the  liquid, 
the  silk  is  loosened,  and  rinsed  thoroughly  in  cold  water, 
in  order  to  free  it  from  the  gum  and  soap.  When  this  is 
done,  it  is  ready  for  dyeing.  The  soap  and  water,  with 
the  gum  in  solution  in  which  the  silk  has  been  boiled, 
are  kept  for  use  in  making  up  the  colour  or  dye  bath. 

Until  the  introduction  of  aniline  dyes,  which  are  not 
worthy  to  be  used  on  silk,  the  only  kind  of  dyes  known 
were  those  extracted  directly  from  natural  vegetable  and 
animal  substances.  Now,  however,  the  alizarine  dyes, 
which  are  practically  the  same  as  the  natural  ones,  as 
regards  colouring  matter,  are  mostly,  and  should  be 
always,  used  for  the  best  silk.  The  process  of  dyeing 
with  either  the  natural  or  alizarine  dye-stuffs  is  the 
same,  and  it  is  this  process  which  is  about  to  be 
described. 

The  Dye-house. — A  dye-house  requires  to  be  light  and 
spacious.  Its  floor  must  be  of  stone  or  concrete,  and  be 
made  slightly  sloping,  so  that  the  floods  of  refuse  dye 
liquid  may  flow  off  quickly  when  emptied  from  the 
tanks  or  hares  which  stand  in  all  parts  of  it. 

It  must  also  have  a  system  of  steam  pipes,  from 
which  jets  of  high-pressure  steam  can  be  injected  to 
any  of  the  bares  at  will. 

It  has  also  to  have  copj^ers  fitted  up,  in  which  the 

4-(i468) 


50 


SILK 


silk  can'^be  boiled,  also  several  large  wooden  pegs,  very 
strong,  smooth,  and  hard,  fixed  very  firmly  to  the  walls. 
There  must  also  be  sundry  racks  for  hanging  parcels  of 
silk,  divided  up  into  skeins,  upon.  There  must  also, 
of  course,  be  plenty  of  water— soft  or  river  water  in 
preference — available. 

I  The  Dye  Bare— The  most  noticeable  objects  in  a  dye- 
house  are  the  great  bares,  of  various  capacities,  which 
stand  about  the  floor,  and  in  which  the  silk  is  dyed. 
The  bare  is  a  tank,  usually  made  of  thick  copper,  and  is 
about  two  feet  wide  and  two  feet  deep.  Bares  vary 
in  length  from  three,  to  seven  or  eight  feet,  so  as  to 
accommodate  different  quantities  of  silk   that  are  to 

be  dyed. 

The  Dye  Sticks.— The  dyer  has  to  be  furnished  with  a 
large  number  of  round,  smooth,  hard  wood  sticks,  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  and  two  feet  eight 
inches  to  three  feet  long. 

Position  of  Skeins  for  Dyeing.— The  skeins  of  silk  are 
placed  on  these  sticks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18,  and  when 


Fig.  18.     Dye  Stick 

the  sticks  with  the  skeins  on  them  rest  on  the  edges  ot 
the  bare,  which  has  previously  been  nearly  filled  with 


SILK   DYEING 


51 


liquid  dye,  as  shown  in-  Fig.  19,  the  skeins  are  about 
three  parts  immersed  in  the  dye. 


Fig.  19.     Dye  Barc 

Turning   the   Skeins.— The   method   of   turning    the 
skeins  in  the  dye  is  as  follows  :  The  dyer  pushes  all  the 
sticks  to  one  end  of  the  barc,  and,  standing  to  the  left 
of  it,  he  takes  the  end  of  the  first  stick  in  his  left  hand, 
pushes  it  away  from  the  others,  and  holding  it  very 
firmly,  he,  with  his  right  hand,  takes  the  skein,  where 
it  rests  upon  the  stick,  raises  it  to  the  position  shown 
at  Fig.  20,  and  then  gently  drops  the  undyed  end  into 
the  liquid,  thus  reversing  its  position  on  the  stick.     All 
the  silk  on  the  fixst  stick  being  turned,  it  is  pushed  to 
the  opposite  end  of  the  barc  (Fig.  21),  and  the  next 
stick  and  all  the  following  ones  are  taken  in  succession, 
the  skeins  turned  in  the  same  manner,  and  pushed  close 
up  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  barc.     The  dyer  now  goes 
to  the  other  side,  and  proceeds  in  the  same  manner  to 
work  the  sticks  back,  and  so  backward  and  forward 
until  he  deems  they  have  taken  up  enough  dye. 

The  Mordant.— This,  so  far,  explains  the  mechanical 
process,  but  before  being  put  into  the  dye,  the  silk  has 
to  be  mordanted,  in  order  to  cause  it  to  take  the  dye 
thoroughly  and  evenly.  For  mordanting,  the  silk 
skeins  are  hung  on  sticks  as  for  dyeing,  but  are  securely 
tied  to  them.  They  are  then  entirely  immersed  for 
some  hours  in  a  barc  or  other  vessel  containing  a  solution 
of  certain  chemical  salts,  which  vary  according  to  the 


52 


SILK 


SILK   DYEING 


53 


colour  to  be  dyed.     In   fact,  some  dyes  are  entirely 
changed   in   colour   by   the   particular   mordant    used. 


% 


Fig.  20.     Turning  the  Skeins 

When  sufficiently  saturated  with  the  solution,  the  silk 
is  taken  out,  rinsed  in  clear  water,  and  is  then  ready  for 

dyeing. 

Process  of  Dyeing.— For  dyeing,  the  bare  is  almost 
filled  with  water,  in  which  the  silk  has  been  boiled,  and 


the  dye-stuff  is  added  to  it.  It  has  to  be,  of  course, 
thoroughly  mixed  before  the  silk  is  put  into  it.  When 
ready,  the  sticks,  with  the  mordanted  skeins  on  them,  are 
put  into  position,  and  the  dyer  begins  at  once  to  turn 
them,  as  already  explained.  When  the  silk  is  thoroughly 
saturated  with  the  cold  Uquor,  steam  is  injected  and 


Fig.  21.     Dye  Barc  in  Use 

the  dye  is  slightly  raised  in  temperature.  The  dyer 
goes  on  turning  the  skeins  and  gradually  works  the  liquid 
up,  between  each  round  of  turning,  to  boiling  point. 
As  soon  as  he  thinks  the  colour  is  strong  enough,  he  lifts 
the  sticks  out  of  the  barc,  rests  them  on  a  rack,  and, 
taking  off  one  skein,  wrings  it  out  and  takes  a  trial  by 
drying  a  few  threads.  He  usually  finds  that  the  colour 
is  less  strong  than  he  thought,  and  has  to  replace  the  silk 
in  the  barc  and  continue  turning  it  in  the  hot  liquid, 
or,  it  may  be,  he  has  to  add  more  dye,  or  modify  the 
colour  in  some  way.  If  it  be  right  in  colour,  the  silk  is 
rinsed  in  clear  water  very  thoroughly,  in  order  to  remove 
any  loose  dye,  and  then,  after  draining  for  a  little  while, 
is  ready  for  the  next  process,  which  is  wringing,  or 
scrouping,  as  it  is  sometimes  called. 

Wringing  or  Scrouping. — ^This  wringing  appears  to  be 
a  very  severe  process  for  such  a  delicate  thread  as  silk. 
But  by  it  the  glossy  lustre  of  the  silk  itself  is  very  much 
enhanced.  The  dyer  takes  a  wet  skein  and,  hanging  it 
on  one  of  the  strong  wall  pegs  (Fig.  22),  puts  a  strong, 
smooth  stick  through  it,  and  twists  it  up,  as  shown  in 


54 


SILK 


the  diagram,  with  all  the  force  he  can  use.  He  twists 
and  wrings  it  first  one  way  and  then  the  other,  until  the 
silk  is  nearly  dry,  and  he  can  squeeze  no  more  liquid  out 
of  it.  He  now  takes  another  test  for  colour,  and,  if  he 
passes  it  as  correct,  the  whole  parcel  of  silk  is  wrung  in 


Fig.  22.    Wringing 

the  same  way,  and  then  sent  to  be  dried,  either  in  a 
drying  room  or  by  the  hydro  extractor. 

Indigo  and  Cochineal.— For  particulars  as  to  indigo 
and  woad  vat  dyeing,  the  dyeing  of  crimsons  and 
scarlets  with  cochineal,  and  all  the  various  dye-stuffs 


A,  Plate  5. 


A  French  Dye-house,  18th  Century 
(See  p.  56) 
(National  Art  Library) 


uw<^^^M'^tJ^^A^^^^ 


B,  Plate  5.     A  Mediaeval  Dyer.     (See  p.  56) 
{National  Art  Library,  South  Kensington) 


56 


SILK 


SILK   DYEING 


57 


in  general  use,  the  reader  should  consult  such  authors 
as  those  named  in  the  note  below.  ^ 

An  interesting  view  of  an  eighteenth-century  French 
dye-house  is  given  at  A  in  Plate  5. 

Miserable  Condition  of  Some  Mediaeval  Craftsmen.— 
Plate  5  (B)  is  photographed  from  an  English  manuscript 
of  the  fourteenth  century.     It  represents  a  silk  piece- 
dyer,  of  the  period,  about  to  dye  a  woven  web  of  a 
diaper  pattern  of  the  kind,  which  it  will  be  shown  later 
on,  were  specially  woven  at  that  time  in  England,  as 
grounds  for  embroidery.     The  craftsmen  of  to-day  are 
sometimes  inclined  to  complain  of  their  lack  of  com- 
forts and  luxuries,  but,  if  this  picture  fairly  represents 
the  condition  of  the  silk  dyers  of  mediaeval  times,  the 
craftsman  of  the  present  time  may,  at  any  rate,  con- 
gratulate himself  that  he  is  better  off  than  his  pre- 
decessors in  the  fourteenth  century.     It  may  be  supposed 
however,  that  the  set  of  pictures,  in  this  old  book  are 
rather  symbolic  than  actual,  for  all  the  workers  in  the 
drawings,  whether  working  indoors  or  out,  are  depicted 
in  the  same  plight  as  to  clothes  ;  whilst  their  pastors  and 
masters  ride  on  horses  and  mules,  clothed  in  gorgeous 
raiment,  and  evidently  faring  sumptuously  every  day. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  dye  pot,  in  the  drawing,  is 
heated  by  a  blazing  fire  below  it.  This  was  the  method 
in  use  before  steam  was  generally  adopted  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Old  French  Silk  Books  :  their  Sumptuousness.— The 
picture  of  the  dye-house  at  A,  Plate  5,  is  from  a  fine  old 
French  book  of  the  eighteenth  century  on  the  art  of 
dyeing,  and  represents  a  well-furnished  dye-house.    All 

1  Art  de  la  Teixture  en  Soie,  per  M.  Macquaic,  1763.  Art 
of  Dyeing.  M.  Hellot,  Dublin.  1767.  The  Dyer's  Guide.  Thomas 
Packer,  London,  1830.  Handbook  of  Dyeing.  W.  Crookes. 
(Longmans,   London.   1874.) 


/ 


the  work  is  shown  going  forward,  as  described  above, 
except  that  the  dyer,  at  the  bare,  is  turning  the  skeins 

with  his  left  hand. 

The  high  estimation  in  which  the  art  of  manipulating 
silk  was  held  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
is  evidenced  by  the  magnificent  and  costly  books  on  the 
subject,  such  as  the  one  from  which  Plate  5  (A)  is  taken, 
which  were  published  in  France  at  that  time. 

Old  Laws  Regulating  Dyeing.— The  dyeing  of  silk  and 
other  goods  used  to  be  regulated  by  law.  The  per- 
manent and  fugitive  dyes  were  called  great  and  little  dyes. 
Only  common  goods  were  allowed  to  be  dyed  by  the  lesser 
dyers,  and  all  goods,  above  a  certain  value,  were  dyed 
by  the  great  dyers  and  had  authorised  marks  upon  them. 
The  following  extract,  from  an  old  English  transla- 
tion of  a  French  dye  book,  is  interesting,  as  it  applies 
equally  to  the  alizarin    and  aniline  dyes  of  to-day  : — 

Extract  from  Old  Book  on  Great  and  Little  Dyes.— 
"  It  may  appear  extraordinary  that  as  there  is  a 
method  of  making  all  colours  by  the  good  dye,  that  the 
use  of  the  lesser  dye  should  be  tolerated  ;  but  three 
reasons  make  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  prevent 
the  practice:  (1)  The  work  is  much  easier  :  most 
colours  and  shades  which  give  the  most  trouble  in  the 
great  dye  are  easily  carried  out  in  the  lesser  ;  (2)  most 
colours  in  the  lesser  are  more  bright  and  lively  than  those 
of  the  great ;  (3)  fo  the  reason,  which  carries  most 
weight,  the  lesser  dye  is  much  cheaper  than  the  great. 
This  is  sufficient  to  determine  the  workmen  to  do  all  in 
their  power  to  carry  on  thi^.  dye,  in  preference  to  the 
other.  This  engaged  the  French  Government  to  con- 
stitute strict  laws  in  regard  to  the  distinction  between 
the  great  and  lesser  dyes."  ^ 

I  See  Hellot's    Art  of  Dyeing.     National  Art  Library.  South 
Kensington. 


'i>i 


58 


SILK 


■i 


Classification  of  Dyes. — ^The  test  required  for  classi- 
fication in  the  great  dye  class  was :  Twelve  days' 
exposure  to  the  summer  sun  and  the  damp  air  of  night. 
If  the  dye  stood  this  test,  there  was  no  doubt  as  to  the 
class  under  which  it  should  be  ranked. 

The  subject  of  dye-stuffs  for  silk  is  a  tempting  one, 
but  would  require  a  voliune  to  itself.  All  that  must 
be  said  here  is  that,  unfortunately,  most  modern  chemical 
research  has  been  made  in  the  direction  of  variety  and 
brightness  of  colour,  together  with  cheapness  and  easi- 
ness of  working,  rather  than  in  that  of  permanence  and 
real  beauty  of  colour.  ^ 

Re-winding  of  Dyed  Silk.— The  skeins  of  silk  having 
been  dyed  and  dried,  have  next  to  be  re- wound  on  to 
bobbins  of  different  sizes  and  shapes,  according  to  the 
purpose  for  which  the  thread  is  to  be  used. 

»  For  further  information  as  to  dyeing  and  dye-stuffs,  the 
student  may  refer  to  the  works  already  mentioned  and  many 
others.  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  modern 
writers,  for  the  most  part,  deal  only  with  the  aniline  dyes. 


CHAPTER    IX 

VARIETIES  OF  SILK  THREAD 

Varieties  of  Twist  in  Silk  Thread.-Silk  thread  is  pre- 
pared for  use,  in  the  different  departments  of  textile 
industry,  chiefly  by  being  twisted  mor3  or  less  closely 
in  the  throwing  and  spinning  processes.  These  are 
capable  of  immense  variety,  and  the  throwster  lays  him- 
self out  to  suit  his  customers  with  the  particular  amount 
of  twist  they  may  desire.  A  great  deal  of  twist  on  a 
thread  means  a  strong,  hard,  but  comparatively  dull 
one;    whilst  little  twisting  results  in  a  bright,  soft. 

flossy  thread.  . 

Hard  Silk.— When  the  silk  leaves  the  throwing  mill, 
it  has  the  requisite  twist,  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
of  all  unevenness,  and  be  of  ascertained  size.  But  it  is 
still  called  hard  silk,  that  is,  it  retains  the  silk-gum. 
In  this  state  it  is  sold  to  the  manufacturer,  who  orders 
its  further  treatment  to  suit  the  purpose  for  which  he 

has  purchased  it. 

One  use  to  which  cleaned  and  thrown  singles  are  put 
is  the  weaving  of  webs  from  which  the  sieves  of  flour- 
milling  machinery  are  made.  This  sieve  silk  is  most 
carefully  and  exactly  woven,  in  more  or  less  open 
textures,  for  sifting  the  flour  as  it  passes  from  one  stage 
of  fineness  to  another,  in  the  mill. 

Hard  Silk  Webs.— Hard  silk  is  also  now  used  largely 
in  weaving  fine  gauzes  and  the  cheaper  kinds  of  plain 
umbrella  and  dress  silks.  These  are  boiled  off  and 
dyed,  after  being  woven,  by  the  piece  dyer.  Ihe 
advantage  of  weaving  the  hard  silk  is  that  the  gum 
strengthens  the  thread,  which  would  otherwise  often  be 

59 


60 


SILK 


VARIETIES  OF   SILK  THREAD 


61 


M    i 


too  fine  and  tender  to  bear  the  strain  of  stretching  in 
the  loom. 

Balloon  Silk. — Silks  for  the  gas  envelopes  of  balloons 
and  airships  ar^  made  of  boiled,  but  undyed,  thread, 
on  account  of  its  strength  and  lightness.  The  material 
for  this  purpose,  after  being  woven,  is  waterproofed, 
which  renders  it  air-tight  and  impervious  to  wet. 

Organzine  and  Tram. — ^Two  kinds  of  finished  silk 
thread,  whether  dyed  or  undyed,  are  used  in  general 
weaving  :  these  are  called  respectively  Organzine  and 
Tram.  To  the  organzine  a  great  deal  of  twist  is  given 
in  the  throwing,  which  makes  it  hard  and  strong. 
Organzine  is  used  for  warps,  which  are  the  longitudinal 
threads  of  a  web,  and  are  tightly  stretched  in  the  loom 
before  weaving  begins,  hence  the  name  warp,  which 
means  to  bend  or  stretch.  Great  strength  and  regu- 
larity are  requisite  in  the  warp  threads,  in  order  that 
they  may  bear  the  strain  and  friction  of  weaving,  as  well 
as  that  the  weaver  may  not  be  hindered  in  his  work  by 
breaking  threads.  Tram  has  much  less  twist  given  to  it 
than  organzine,  and  is  consequently  soft  and  more  or  less 
flossy.  Tram  is  used  for  woof,  weft,  shute,  or  filling, 
as  it  is  indiscriminately  called.  All  these  names  signify 
the  intersecting  thread  which  knits  the  warp  together 
into  a  web  of  cloth.  There  is  little  strain  on  the  weft, 
but  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  soft  and  bulky, 
in  order  that  its  successive  threads  may  lie  close  together 
and  fill  up  the  interstices  of  the  web. 

With  the  exception  of  spun  waste  silk,  varieties  of 
organzine  and  tram  are  practically  the  only  kinds  of 
silk  thread  used  for  weaving ;  and  the  only  varieties 
in  each  sort  are  difference  of  size,  amount  of  twist, 
and  quality  of  silk. 

Sewing  and  Embroidery  Silks. — For  sewing,  embroi- 
dery, and   trimming  purposes,  however,  all  kinds  of 


K 


twists  and  plaitings,  and  an  immense  variety  of  sizes 
are  used  ;  from  almost  twistless  floss  to  the  hardest  and 
strongest  thread  it  is  possible  to  make,  with  often  several 
hundred  strands  of  fibre  closely  twined  together. 

Brocading  Metal  Threads.— For  weaving  rich  brocaded 
silk  webs  and  also  for  gorgeous  embroidery,  silk  is  often 
covered,  or  partially  covered,  with  a  twist  of  gold  or 
silver  wire,  or  with  gilded  strips  of  parchment  or  paper. 
For  this  purpose  very  little  twist  is  given  to  the  silk 
itself,  so  that  the  metal  or  paper  clings  to  it,  and  it 
becomes  a  homogeneous  thread.  The  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  century  weavers  in  Italy  and  France  were 
particularly  skilful  in  weaving  with  these  metallic 
wefts. 


ANCIENT  SILK  WEAVING 


63 


CHAPTER    X 


ANCIENT   SILK  WEAVING 


Art  of  Weaving  Prehistoric  and  Universal. — Weaving, 
the  art  of  intersecting  threads  so  as  to  make  cloth,  is 
prehistoric,  and  seems  to  be  instinctive  to  mankind. 
Specimens  of  it  are  to  be  found  amongst  the  rehcs  of 
the  people  of  the  Age  of  Stone,  and  there  is  no  tribe  of 
man,  however  primitive,  which  has  no  knowledge  of, 
or  does  not  practise  textile  art  in,  one  form  or  another. 

By  all  the  great  nations  of  antiquity — Egypt,  China, 
India,  Greece,  and  Rome — weaving  was  carried  to  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  That  perfection,  however, 
was  not  attained  by  the  use  of  elaborate  machinery,  as 
some  authors  have  imagined,  but  by  the  patient  manipu- 
lation of  multitudes  of  threads  arranged  in  order  on 
simple  frames. 

Weaving  Technique. — ^The  most  intricate  pattern  web 
only  consists  of  two  sets  of  threads,  the  warp  and  the 
weft,  intersecting  each  other  in  different  proportions. 
Roughly  speaking,  the  effect  is  the  same,  whether  the 
threads  are  simply  stretched  in  order  on  a  rude  frame 
and  picked  up  and  intersected  by  patient  handwork, 
or  set  up  and  arranged  in  a  complicated  machine,  so 
constructed  as  to  lift  and  intersect  the  threads  auto- 
ma  ically  in  the  necessary  combinations  for  the  weaving 
of  the  web  and  its  ornamentation.  The  former  is  the 
ancient  method,  and  the  latter  the  modem  one. 

Characters  of  Ancient  and  Modem  Technique. — 
Although  almost  anything  that  can  be  woven,  either 
by  the  ancient  or  modem  methods,  is  possible  in  both, 
each  kind  of  technique  gives  facility  for  a  different  class 
of  intersection,  which  it  is  necessary  to  understand  clearly. 

62 


Ancient.— The  frontispiece  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
ancient  method  of  manipulation.  The  tiny  threads  of 
warp,  about  eighty  to  an  inch,  were  all  selected  and 
raised  for  the  formation  of  this  design,  and  the  vanous 
coloured  pieces  of  weft  were  inserted,  without  the  aid 
of  any  mechanical  contrivance  whatever.  When  the 
weft  thus  chiefly  shows  in  a  design,  weavers  call  it  a 
weft  effect.  In  such  weaving  the  warp  only  acts  as  a 
foundation  to,  or  a  tie  for,  the  ornamental  weft.     In 


Fig.  23.     Tapestry  Weaving 

this  example  the  warp  is  entirely  covered  by  the  weft, 
and  the  pattem  is  really  a  mosaic  of  small  pieces  of 
plain  weaving  in  which  different  coloured  wefts  have 
been  used.  Tapestry  is  the  name  given  to  this  kind  of 
weft  effect  weaving  (see  Fig.  23) .  Sometimes  the  ancient 
weavers  only  treated  a  portion  of  the  web  m  this 
manner,  ^  but  whether  more  or  less  covering  the  warp, 

1  Many  examples  of  tapestry-woven  ornamental  webs  of  the 
ERVPto-Roman  period  may  be  seen  in  the  collection  of  textiles 
at  the  Victoria  and  Albert  and  the  British  Museums.  London. 


I 


ANCIENT  SILK  WEAVING 


65 


II 


a 

-  V 
c/) 


W     5 

oa    ^ 
o   5 

^^ 

S    ^ 

t— t  -^ 

2      K 

X  -2 


CO 

f 


li 


the  ornament  in  ancient  weaving  was,  without  exception, 
formed  by  the  wefting. 

Modem.— A,  Plate  6,  was  photographed  from  a  piece 
of    modem    power-loom    pattem    weaving.      In    this 
example  the  effect  is  got  by  the  use  of  two  or  three 
warps  of  different  colours  working  together,  and  by 
striping  one  of  them  with  different  coloured  threads. 
The  design  is  brought  out  by  raising  these  coloured 
warp  threads,  as  they  are  required  for  the  pattem,  and 
leaving  them  in  loops  above  the  weft.     The  insertion 
of  the  weft  is  thiis  rendered  quite  simple  and  regular, 
and  the  stuff,  when  the  design  is  once  arranged  for  in 
the  machine,  is  as  easy,  if  not  easier,  to  weave  thaii  it 
would   be   if   the   web   were   quite   plain.     This]  is  a 
warp  effect.    It  is  comparatively  a  modem  method  of 
pattem-weaving,  and   is  particularly  suitable  to  the 

power-loom.  ^ 

Materials  Used  in  Weaving.— For  the  most  part,  the 
materials  in  use  to-day  for  weaving  were  also  used  by 
the  people  of  antiquity.  The  weaving  of  each  kind  of 
thread  was,  however,  restricted  to  different  nations. 
The  Egyptians  used  flax,  and  the  fine  Imen  of  Egypt 
was  the  admiration  of  the  world.  The  natives  of  India 
used  cotton  for  weaving,  the  cotton  plant  being  peculiar 
to  that  country.  The  nomadic  and  pastoral  tribes 
made  cloth  of  the  hair  and  wool  shom  from  their  flocks 
and  herds,  and  the  Chinese  had,  as  has  been  already 
pointed  out,  the  monopoly  of  silk  for  very  many 
centuries. 

Chinese  Use  of  Silk.— It  was  only  natural  that  the 
Chinese,  thus  having  the  monopoly  of  the  finest  and 

*  For  full  descriptions  of  these  and  all  methods  of  weaving 
to  be  afterwards  referred  to,  see  the  author's  book,  Hand-loom 
Weaving:  Plain  and  Ornamental,  published  by  John  Hogg, 
London. 

5-(i468) 


66 


SILK 


most  beautiful  of  all  threads,  should  early  devise 
methods  of  weaving  it  which  would  show  it  off  to  the 
best  advantage.  Ordinary  plain  weaving  with  which 
the  Chinese,  in  common  with  all  primitive  people,  began 
the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  would  not  do  this. 
The  most  lustrous  silk  fibre,  if  woven  in  the  plain  and 
simple  way  called  tahhy,  taffeta,  or  sarcenet  (see  Fig.  24), 


Fig.  24.     Tabby  Weaving 


I  } 


appears  dull,  both  in  lustre  and  colour,  if  compared  with 
a  loose  skein  of  the  silk  of  which  it  is  made,  especially 
if  the  weaving  be  well  and  closely  done. 

First  Step  in  Automatic  Weaving.— At  this  point  it 
becomes  necessary  to  give  a  brief  description  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  parts  of  the  loom  which  have  to  do 
with  lifting  the  threads  of  the  warp  for  the  intersection 
of  the  w  ft.  In  the  most  primitive  looms  this  is  simply 
done  by  means  of  the  weaver's  fingers,  but  very  early 
in  the  history  of  weaving  an  automatic  arrangement 
was  devised,  so  that,  for  plain  webs,  the  weaver  could, 
with  his  feet,  by  means  of  a  system  of  treadles,  lift  the 


ANCIENT  SILK  WEAVING 


67 


I 


threads  in  the  required  alternation,  and  thus  leave  his 
hands  free  to  intersect  them  with  the  weft.  By  this 
contrivance  much  time  was  saved. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  where  this  invention  was  first 
used  ;    but  as  silk,  being  so  fine,  would  be  the  most 
difficult  and  tedious  thread  to  pick  up  with  the  fingers, 
a  needle,  or  other  implement,  it  is  most  probable  that 
the  Chinese  were  the  originators  of  this  important  step 
in  automatic  weaving.     Fig.  25  will  serve  to  explain 
this  contrivance.     At  A  is  a  warp  of  eight  threads, 
stretched    horizontally   between    the    back    and    front 
rollers  of  a  loom  of  some  form — what  form  is  immaterial. 
Near  the  letter  A  is  the  front  roller  of  the  loom,  on  to 
which  the  cloth  is  wound  as  it  is  woven.    The  weft  is 
shown,  next  to  the  roller,  loosely  intersecting  the  warp. 
At  B  B  the  main  part  of  the  warp-thread  lifting  appli- 
ance is  shown.     It  consists  of  four  laths  joined  together 
in  pairs.     Each  pair  has  one  lath  above,  and  one  below 
the  warp.     The  laths  are  joined  together  in  pairs  by 
four  strong  double  threads,  made  in  three  loops,   as 
shown  at  C.     The  centre  loop  is  quite  small,  and  through 
this  the  warp  thread  is  passed.     A  glance  at  the  drawing 
will  at  once  make  clear,  that,  through  the  centre  loops 
of  the  front  headle,  for  that  is  the  technical  name  of  the 
pair  of  laths,  the  first,  third,  fifth,  and  seventh  threads 
of  warp  pass  ;   also  that  the  second,  fourth,  sixth,  and 
eighth  threads  pass  through  the  back  headle  loops. 

Above  the  headles  a  roller  or  pulley  (D)  is  fixed,  and 
a  cord  from  the  front  headle  passes  over  it  and  is 
attached  to  the  top  of  the  back  headle. 

The  bottom  laths  of  the  headles  are  joined  separately 
by  cords  to  a  pair  of  treadles  (E). 

Now,  if  the  weaver,  sitting  in  the  loom,  presses  down 
one  treadle,  four  of  the  warp  threads  will  sink,  with  the 
headle  to  which  they  belong,  as  it  is  drawn  down.     This 


68 


SILK 


Fig.  25.    Headles  for  Opening  the  Warp  or  Shed 

will  also  draw  down  the  cord  which  passes  over  the 
pulley  D,  and  in  consequence  raise  the  other  headle 


AKClfeNt    SILK   WEAVING 


69 


with  its  warp  threads.  There  will  now  be  an  opening, 
in  front  of  the  weaver,  through  which  to  pass  the  weft. 
Then,  by  pressing  down  the  other  treadle,  the  position 
of  the  warp  threads  will  be  reversed,  and  the  second 
opening  necessary  for  the  return  of  the  weft  will  be 
ready.  This  is  the  simple  contrivance  by  means  ot 
which  the  warp  threads,  no  matter  how  many  there 
be   are  automatically  opened  for  plain  weaving. 

Invention  of  Satin  Weaving.— There  is  no  record  of 
the  time  when  the  method  of  weaving  was  invented  by 
the  Chinese,  which  gave  a  fuU  display  of  the  lustre  of 
the  silk,  which  is  its  chief  beauty.  But  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  they  were  the  inventors,  and  that  probably 
they  devised  this  system  of  weaving  many  hundreds  of 
years  before  the  Christian  era. 

This  process  is  called  satin  weaving,  and  it  is  remark- 
able as  being  the  foundation  process  in  aU  modem 
pattern  weaving,  whether  simple  or  complex. 

Satin  Web  Intersection.— A  comparison  of  Figs.  24 
and  26  will  show  the  difference  between  the  interlace- 
ments of  plain  or  tabby  weaving  and  those  of  the  satin. 
In  the  tabby  (Fig.  24)  the  weft  passes  alternately  above 
and  below  the  individual  threads  of  the  warp.     But  in 
the  satin  web  (Fig.  26)  the  weft  passes  over  one  thread 
and  under  seven  of  the  others.     Also  there  are  eight 
different  lines  in  the  weft  completed  before  one  exactly 
similar  to  the  first  is  repeated.     Thus  in  the  first  Ime 
the  first  warp  thread  is  raised  ;  in  the  second,  the  fourth 
thread ;   in  the  third,  the  seventh  ;   in  the  fourth,  the 
second  ;  in  the  fifth,  the  fifth  ;  in  the  sixth,  the  eighth  ; 
in  the  seventh,  the  third ;   and  in  the  eighth,  the  sixth 
thread  is  raised.     So  that  whether  counted  vertically 
or  laterally,  there  are  always  an  equal  number  of  spaces 
between  the  intersections  of  satin  ties,  as  they  are  called. 
By  this  clever  arrangement  almost  all  the  warp  is  brought 


I 


J 


II 


70 


Silk 


to  the  front  surface  of  the  web,  and  the  same  proportion 
of  weft  is  left  at  the  back.  By  this  method  of  intersection, 


Fig.  26.     Satin  Weaving 

too,  the  ties  are  hardly  perceptible,  and  the  surface 
presents,  when  the  web  is  woven  of  silk,  the  sheeny, 
smooth   appearance   which   is   characteristic   of   satin. 


Tabby. 


Fig.  27. 


Satin. 


Nos.   1  and  2  (Fig.  27)  indicate  how  the  intersections 
are  expressed  on  designer's  ruled  paper,  and  should  be 


i 


AtJClEKT   SILK  WEAVING 


71 


compared  with  Figs.  24  and  26,  as  such  matters  wi 
now  be  more  readily  illustrated  in  this  manner     It  will 
be  noticed  in  Fig.  27  that  weft  is  expressed  by  fillmg 
in  a  blank  space,  and  warp  by  leaving  a  white  space  on 

the  paper.  ^ 

It  must  not  be  suppored  that  satms  are  always  con- 
structed  on  eight  threads;  they  may  be  woven  on 
almost  any  number,  from  five  to  twenty-four,  but  satms 
of  five  and  eight  threads  are  the  most  usual. 

Illustration  of  Satin  Technique.— Satins  also  require  as 
many  headles,  in  order  to  weave  them,  as  their  number 
of  intersections  indicate,  and  are  called  five-headle  or 
eight-headle  satin,  as  the  case  may  be.     Fig.  28  (Nos.  1 


Fig.  28. 


and  2)  will  explain  this  point.  In  No.  1  the  thin, 
vertical  lines  are  the  warp,  and  the  thick  cross  Imes 
represent  the  headles.  The  ticks  on  the  crossings 
of  the  two  sets  of  lines  show  the  order  in  which  the 
headles  are  raised  in  weaving.  No.  2  is  the  sketch  of  a 
five-headle  satin  on  ruled  paper. 

It   is   not  surprising    that   the    fine,   lustrous,    and 


72 


ti 


I 


II 


SILK 


exquisitely  dyed  silken  webs  of  China  should  have  been 

ZT'r"  ^J^'r' '''  '"""'""^  P'''^  •'y  the  luxurio" 
people  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  as  the  many  refer- 

«aces  to  them  m  classic  literature  show  that  they  v^re 

export  trade  m  nch  and  finely  woven  webs,  as  well  L 
m  the  simpler  ones,  which,  as  has  been  already  noticed 
were  purchased  by  other  nations  for  the  purpo  e  o* 
unravellmg  the  silk  thread  that  could  be  obtah^ed  ,n 
no  other  way.  ^ 

»  For  full  particulars  of  satins,  see  Hand  loom  Weaving. 


Fig.  29.     Dragon,  from  an  Ancient  Chinese  Painting 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE   ORNAMENTAL   SILK   WEBS   OF   CHINA 

Ancient  Ornamental  Textiles.— It    cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  decoration  of  textiles  began  in  China  in  the 
same  manner  as  with  other  ancient  nations,  that  is,  by 
means  of  the  needle,  and  that  the  darning  in  of  separate 
ornaments,  in  the  tapestry  or  mosaic  method,  was  early 
adopted  by  the  Chinese.     Afterwards  the  whole  webs 
were  no  doubt  woven  in  the  way  described  on  pages  63, 
65,  and  66.     This  kind  of  weaving  cannot,  however, 
be  done  on  satin  grounds,  nor  does  silk  lend  itself  so 
kindly  to  manipulation  in  tapestry  as  do  wool  and  Unen. 
The  Chinese,  nevertheless,  do  marvellous  things  in  pure 
tapestry  weaving,  even  in  silk.     An  example  of  this  is 
given    by  a    Chinese  Imperial  robe  of    pure    tapestry 
mosaic,  now  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  from 
which  B,  Plate  6,  is  taken. 

This  robe  was  woven  on  an  Imperial  loom,  and  m\ist 
have  taken  an  enormous  amount  of  time  to  make.  The 
weaving  is  most  minute  and  exact ;  all  the  forms  of 
ornament  are  perfect  in  drawing,  and  the  colour  is 
superb.  Nothing  finer  can  be  imagined  either  in  crafts- 
manship or  design.     But,  although  this  robe  is  such  a 

73 


» 


THE  ORNAMfiNtAL  StLk  WE6S  OF  CHINA 


75 


A,   Plate  7.      Chinese  Satin   with 

Embroidery.       (See  p.  75) 

{Victoria  and  Albert  Museum) 


B,  Plate  7.     Chinese  Draw-loom.     (See  p.  76) 
(Victoria  and  Albert  Museum) 


perfect  piece  of  work,  its  method  of  weaving  renders  it 
impossible  for  it  to  display  the  lustre  of  the  pure  silk 
of  which  it  is  woven. 

The  satin  grounds,  described  in  the  last  chapter,  were 
particularly  suited  for  displaying  to  advantage  the 
embroideries  of  silk  and  gold,  which  the  Chinese  have 
always  been  so  skilful  in  working,  and  it  is  certain  that 
the  decorated  textiles  of  ancient  China  were  at  first 
either  tapestry  mosaics,  or  embroidered  satins. 

A,  Plate  7,  is  also  from  a  portion  of  an  Imperial  robe. 
The  whole  garment  is  made  in  rich  satin  embroidered 
in  coloured  silks.  It  also  has  narrow  tapestry- worked 
borders,  with  fine  details  painted  in.  The  part  shown 
is  the  sleeve  of  the  garment,  which  is  a  beautiful  example 
of  Chinese  needlework  on  satin. 

It  is  said  that  Chinese  textile  designs  can  be  traced 
back  to  very  ancient  times  by  means  of  representations 
of  them  on  more  lasting  decorative  materials,  such  as 
enamels,  porcelains,  etc.  There  are  also  innumerable 
references  in  Chinese  classical  books  to  woven  and 
embroidered  designs  on  flags,  banners,  official  robes. 
Imperial  paraphernalia,  and  the  like.  ^ 

Ancient  Records  of  Ornamental  Weaving. — Ancient 
Chinese  historians  often  referred  to  woven  and  em- 
broidered silks.  For  instance,  the  Chinese  emperors 
gave  gifts  of  rolls  of  figured  silks,  as  at  the  present  day. 
This  is  proved  by  the  citation  of  a  notice  of  the  pre- 
sentation of  five  rolls  of  silk  brocade,  with  dragons 
(Fig.  29)  woven  in  gold  upon  a  crimson  ground,  by  an 
emperor  in  the  year  a.d.  238,  to  the  reigning  Empress 
of  Japan,  who  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Court  of  China 
in  that  year. 

The   names  of   traditional   designs   for  silk   fabrics, 

*  Dr.    Bushell,    in    Chinese  Art,    gives    long   lists    of   these 
ornaments  and  designs. 


1 


w 


§ttk 


which  are  constantly  referred  to  in  Chinese  hterature 
are  perfectly  in  keeping  with  those  which  the  Chinese 
silk    weavers    and    embroiderers     use    to-day       The 
Chinese    craftsman    does    not    concern    himself    about 
ongtnaltty,  the  curse  of  modem  art,  but  just  goes  on 
producing,  with  Httle  variety,  the  same  kind  of  pattern 
with  the  same  quality  of  technique  which  his  ancestors 
did  centuries  ago.     This  impassiveness  tends  to  perfec- 
tion,   but   makes  it  very  difficult   to  determine  with 
certainty  the  date  of  anything  Chinese,   unless  it  be 
characterised  by  something  other  than  style  of  design 
and  meth  d  of  craftsmanship. 

The  Loom  for  Pattern  Weaving.-At  what  period  in 
Chmese  history  the  loom,  used  for  the  automatically 
weaving  of  elaborate  patterns,  was  evolved  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was 
many  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  And  also,  that 
to  the  Chinese  the  credit  is  due  for  the  invention  of  that 
marvel  of  ingenuity,  the  draw-loom, 

A  representation  of  a  highly  developed  draw-loom  is 
given  in  the  old  Chinese  book  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made.     It  is  the  original  of  B,  Plate  7 

Such  an  advanced  form  of  pattern  weaving  machine 
must  have  taken  many  generations  of  Chinese  weavers 
to  perfect,  for,  although  the  picture  is  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  it  might  be  taken  as  a  representation  of 
a  Chinese  pattern  weaving  loom  of  to-day  no 
unprovements  having  been  made  since  that  time 
From  a  careful  examination  of  the  Plate  much  can  be 
learned  of  the  mechanism  of  this  most  important  and 
interesting  of  all  silk-weaving  looms,  the  compound 
draw-loom. 

The  first  thing  to  observe  is  that  the  loom  is  a  double 
one,  and  that  two  weavers  are  at  work  on  it.  One  of 
these  IS  seated  in  front  of  the  loom  in  the  ordinary 


THE  ORNAMENTAL  SILK  WEBS  OF  CHINA 


77 


position  of  a  weaver,  evidently  weaving  cloth.  The 
other  is  perched  aloft  at  the  back  Uke  a  Deus  ex  machinal 
busy  about  some  department  of  the  work,  the  purpose 
of  which  is  not  so  clearly  evident. 

The  lower  front  portion  of  the  loom  is  very  similar  in 
construction  to  an  English  or  French  hand-loom,  such 
as  is  used  for  weaving  the  best  plain  silk  fabrics  at  the 
present  day.  There  is  the  warp,  of  extraordinary  length 
in  this  case,  stretched  between  the  front  and  back  rollers 
of  the  loom,  also  the  headles  with  their  loops  or  leashes 
for  lifting  the  warp  threads,  and  the  levers  and  treadles 
by  means  of  which  they  are  governed. 

The  number  of  headles  in  the  harness  depicted  is 
eight,  so  that  the  weaver  is  making  a  web,  the  ground- 
work of  which  is  no  doubt  eight-headle  satin.  There  is 
another  set  of  headles  indicated  immediately  behind  the 
first  set,  but  as  these  are  not  in  use,  as  indicated  by  the 
unstrung  set  of  levers  to  which  they  are  attached,  they 
need  not  be  considered.  All  this  part  of  the  loom  the 
weaver  in  front  can  manage  by  himself  by  means  of  the 
treadles,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  hollow  space,  in  the 
floor  of  the  weaving-house,  just  below  the  loom. 

Now  the  perched  up  figure  at  the  back  of  the  loom 
claims  attention,  for  it  is  in  him  and  his  work  that  the 
peculiarity  of  the  draw-loom  is  found.  The  cloth  spread 
below  him  is  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  precious 
silk  warp  over  which  he  is  seated.  Immediately  in 
front  of  him  a  tall  frame  is  placed,  and  a  system  of  fine 
cords,  hanging  from  the  top,  pass  through  a  board  at 
its  centre,  and  after  going,  as  it  appears,  between  the 
threads  of  the  warp,  pass  into  the  pit  below  the  loom, 
and  there  their  termination  is  hidden  from  view. 

There  is  no  indication,  in  the  drawing,  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  back  portion  of  the  loom  is  worked  by  the 
presiding  genius,  but  the  effect  of  it  is  just  shown  on 


78 


SILK 


the  warp  immediately  in  front  of  the  weaver,  who  sits 
below.  Little  groups  of  threads  are  seen  to  be  raised, 
and  it  is  in  managing  these  that  the  second  weaver 
is  engaged.  This  will  be  understood  clearly  after 
the  explanation  of  the  principles  of  the  simple  and 
compound  draw-loom  contained  in  the  following  chapter. 
Modem  Indebtedness  to  China.— From  this  most 
interesting  drawing  we  certainly  learn  the  fact,  that, 
in  ancient  China,  pattern-weaving  looms  were  in  use 
for  weaving  silk,  having  a  combination  of  two  kinds  of 
mountings  working  together  as  one.  We  gather,  also, 
that  it  is  to  China  that  the  world  is  indebted  for  the 
invention  of  the  draw-loom,  and  the  principles  of  pattern 
weaving,  principles  which  have  been  adopted  to  such  an 
enormous  extent  in  modem  times,  and  have  resulted  in 
the  development  of  the  vast  textile  industries  of  Europe. 


CHAPTER    XII 

THE    SIMPLE   AND   COMPOUND   DRAW-LOOM    FOR   SILK 

WEAVING 

Scope  of  the  Headle  Hamess.— Very  small  designs,  as 
has  been  shown  in  the  case  of  satins,  can  be  woven  by 
increasing  the  number  of  headles  in  a  loom,  and  passing 
the  warp  threads  through  them  in  regular  succession. 
But  it  is  obvious  that  the  limit  of  the  number  of  headles, 
possible  to  moxmt  and  manage,  is  soon  reached,  for  each 
headle  cannot  occupy  much  less  space  than  an  inch. 
Twenty  headles  is  quite  a  large  number,  therefore,  to 
use  with  convenience,  and  yet,  a  design  that  can  be 
worked  out  on  twenty  threads  is  quite  a  small  one, 
especially  if  the  warp  be  of  fine  silk. 

Scope  of  the  Draw-loom.— The  draw-loom  provides  a 
means  of  controlling  separately  the  threads  of  a  warp 
consisting  of  several  hundreds,  or  it  may  be  thousands, 
and  lifting  them  in  any  order  necessary  for  the  forma- 
tion of  an  important  design.  At  the  same  time,  the 
contrivance  for  doing  this  only  occupies,  in  the  length 
of  the  loom,  space  equal  to  that  taken  up  by  a  set,  or 
harness,  of  a  few  headles. 

Essential  Part  of  the  Draw-loom.— The  most  essential 
and  distinctive  part  of  the  ancient  or  modem  loom,  for 
pattern-weaving,  is  the  comber  board.  This  is  so  whether 
the  loom  be  actuated  by  the  hand  and  foot  of  the 
weaver,  or  by  steam,  water,  electricity,  or  any  other 
power.  The  original  name  was  camber  board,  and  the 
lateral  repeats  of  a  design  were  called  cambers,  so  that 
the  name  denotes  the  purpose  of  the  board,  for  the 
repeats  of  a  design,  laterally,  are  set  out  and  fixed 
imalterably  on  it,  as  will  presently  be  seen. 

79 


II 


80 


SILK 


In  settmg  out  to  build  a  loom-mounting  or  tmnture, 
the  lirst  thmg  to  determine  is  the  width  of  the  stuff  it 
IS  intended  to  weave,  and  the  next,  how  many  threads 
the  warp  ,s  to  consist  of.  These  points  settled,  the 
construction  of  the  comber  board  can  begin 

The  Comber  Board.-Fig.  30  is  a  diagram  of  a  simpli- 
fied  comber  board.     It  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  frame 


' /»PHl ell  g.rfarJM 


Fig.  30.    Comber  Board 

which  is  made  a  little  longer  than  the  width  of  stuff 
to  be  woven  This  frame  has  its  inner  edges  grooved 
in  order  to  allow  a  number  of  thin,  hard  wood  slips  to 
fit  mto  It.  Eight  of  these  are  shown  in  the  diagram. 
Also  each  of  the  sUps  is  shown  pierced  with  nine  holes. 
The  comber  board  is  always  pierced  with  as  many  holes 
as  there  are  threads  in  the  warp,  that  is,  in  a  simile 
draw-loom.  In  the  present  case  there  are  only  seventy- 
two  holes;  but  warps  of  silk  sometimes  consist  of 
several  thousand  threads,  in  which  case  there  would 
have  to  be  an  equal  number  of  holes  in  the  comber 
board. 

Here,  then  (Fig.  30),  is  a  comber  board,  having 
seventy-two  holes  in  a  certain  fixed  width.  In  these 
seventy-two  holes,  seventy-two  looped  leashes  will  be 
hung,  answering  to  the  leashes  described  on  the  headles 
m  Fig.  25  (p.  68),  and  through  the  eyes  of  these  the 
warp  will  be  threaded  in  regular  order. 

Draw-loom  Leashes.— Although  veiy  similar  to  the 
beadle  leashes,   leashes  for  the  comber  board  differ 


I 


\ 


THE  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  DRAW-LOOM 


81 


slightly  from  them,  and  must,  therefore,  be  explained 

from  Fig.  31.     The  leash  consists  of  four  parts  :    (1)  A 

long  loop  of  thread,  which  passes  through 

the  hole  in  the  comber  board  ;   (2)  an  eye 

attached   to  it,   through    which   a   warp 

thread  can  be  passed,  (this  eye  is  always 

made  of  glass  when  the  leash  is  for  a  silk 

loom)  ;  (3)  another  loop  of  thread  hanging 

from  the  eye,  not  quite  so  long  as  the  first 

loop ;    and  (4)  a    weight   made    of   thin 

lead    wire,    depending    from    the     lower 

loop. 

Now,  when  the  loom  is  in  action,  if 
a  leash  be  pulled  up  through  the 
hole  in  the  comber  board,  the  thread  of 
warp,  entered  in  the  eye  of  the  leash,  will, 
of  course,  be  raised  with  it.  And  as  soon 
as  the  leash  is  released,  the  lead  weight 
will  draw  it  down  again  to  its  normal 
position  at  the  warp  level. 

Comber  Board  Leashes  and  Design. — 
All  the  holes  of  the  comber   board  have 
to  be  furnished  with  leashes,  but  for  the 
sake  of  clearness  only  a  few  are  drawn  in 
the  diagram  (Fig.  32).     The  number  of 
vertical  lines,  however,  in  the  design  on 
ruled  paper  below  it,  will  be  seen  to  agree 
with  the  number  of  holes  in   the  same 
width  of  the  comber  board.     The  number 
of  repeats  in  the  width  of  warp  is  the  next 
consideration.     The  design  shown  in  the 
lower  part   of   Fig.  32   occupies   eighteen  Comber  Board 
spaces  of  ruled  paper,  so  that  there  are         Leash 
four  repeats  in  seventy- two  spaces.     Any  design,  there- 
fore, that  will  come  in    on    eighteen    spaces,    in    the 

6-((468) 


Fig.  31 


82 


SILK 


width,  of  ruled  paper  would  be  workable  by  means  of 
the  comber  board,  as  represented  in  the  figure.  The 
height  of  the  design  is  immaterial. 


THE   SIMPLE  AND  CX)MPOUND  DRAW-LOOM 


**   ■■■• 

•  ••    •  ■• 

•        •••  ■!•■ 

•  •••  ■  nxa.i 
•■••  ••■••■  ■■■  ■! 
••••         ••■■    ••  t 

'    ' ■  ■ 

><«>•••    •    tai  I 

•■•I      I      ■■• 
•••      •••••       ■■      (I) 

•••■•  •••■■  ::!,* 


Fig.  32.     Draw-loom  Monture 

At  the  top  of  Fig.  32  a  board  is  shown  pierced  with 
eighteen  holes,  through  which  eighteen  cords  hang.  It 
will  be  seen  that  this  is  the  same  number  as  the  lateral 


83 


row  of  squares  in  one  repeat  of  the  design  at  the  bottom 
of  the  drawing. 

If,  to  the  cord  hanging  from  the  firsihole  in  the  top  board, 
the  leash  answering  to  the  first  space  in  every  repeat  of  the 
design,  be  connected,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line,  and  the 
cord  be  drawn  up,  the  first  thread  in  every  eighteen, 
right  across  the  warp  will  be  lifted.  These  threads 
will  be  seen  to  agree  with  the  first  space  in  every  repeat 
of  the  draughted  design,  and,  at  that  spot,  in  weaving, 
an  intersection  of  warp  and  weft  would  take  place. 

Now,  if  all  the  leashes  were  joined  up  in  the  same 
manner  to  each  successive  top  cord,  it  is  manifest  that 
any  combination  of  eighteen  threads,  indicated  on  ruled 
paper,  could  be  lifted  on  the  four  repeats,  by  drawing 
up  the  corresponding  cords  at  the  top  of  the  machine. 

So  far,  the  description  of  the  draw-loom  is  as  applicable 
to  the  pattern  looms  of  to-day  as  to  those  of  a  thousand 
or  more  years  ago.  In  fact,  no  other  arrangement  for 
extensive  pattern  weaving  has  been  devised. 

All  modem  improvements  have  been  made  on  the 
parts  of  the  loom  beyond  the  board  shown  at  the  top 
of  Fig.  32,  and  they  only  accelerate  the  speed  of  working, 
or  affect  some  imessential  detail  of  procedure.  They 
do  not  touch  the  principles  of  the  intersection  of  threads, 
in  which  the  whole  art  and  mystery  of  weaving  consists. 

It  is  perhaps  necessary  to  describe  the  automatic 
arrangement  by  which  the  design  was  worked  out  in  the 
draw-loom,  but  it  must  necessarily  be  a  very  cursory 
description,  and  the  reader  wishing  for  a  detailed 
explanation  of  that  complicated  machine  must  consult 
a  work  dealing  exclusively  with  the  hand-loom.  ^ 

Pulley  Cords. — ^At  the  top  of  the  drawing  in  Fig.  32 
eighteen  cords  are  seen  to   pass  into  the  holes  in  the 

*  Hand-loom  Weaving :  Plain  and  Ornamental,  by  Luther 
Hooper.     (John  Hogg.  London.)  . 


84 


SILK 


bottom  board  of  an  oblong  box.  In  the  box,  eighteen 
pulleys  are  arranged.  Over  these  pulleys  the  eighteen 
cords  pass,  and  are  carried  out  of  the  side,  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction,  and  fixed  to  a  strong  post  or  wall. 


Fig.  33 


of 


Showing   one   cord 
the  Draw- loom. 

A.  The  Simple  cord. 
The  tail  cord. 
The  pulley. 
The  pulley  cord. 
The    necking 

cords. 
The    comber 

board. 
The    first    leash 

in  each  repeat. 
Shows  on   ruled 

paper  the  effect 

of  pulling  down 

the  Simple  cord 

A. 


B. 
C. 
D. 
E. 

F. 


H, 


® 


<8) 


' 


about  six  feet  beyond  the  side  of  the   loom.    These 
cords  are  called  the  loom  tail. 

The  Simple. — Midway  between  the  side  of  the  loom 
and  the  wall,  and  in  a  row  parallel  to  the  loom,  eighteen 
vertical  cords,  called  the.  simple,  are  tied  at  the  top  to 


THE  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND   DRAW-LOOM  85 

the  tail  cords,  and  at  the  bottom  to  a  strong  bar  fixed 
by  iron  staples  to  the  ground.  Fig.  33  shows  the  whole 
arrangement  as  regards  the  working  of  the  first  cord. 

Now,  if  the  simple  cord  A  (Fig.  33)  be  pulled  down, 
it  is  clear  that  the  pulley  cord  D  will  be  drawn  up,  and 


J 


Fig.  34.     Design  and  Tie-up  on  the  Simple  Cords 

draw  with  it  the  first  leashes  in  each  repeat  of  the 
comber  board.  This  will  raise  the  first  thread  in  each 
repeat  of  the  design,  and  the  effect,  if  woven,  is  shown 
on  the  line  of  ruled  paper  H  H. 

Tie-up  of  Design. — Fig.  34  shows  the  way  the  weaver 
tied  up  the  design  on  the  cords  of  the  simple,  so  that 


86 


SILK 


the  drawboy,  who  stood  at  the  side  of  the  loom,  could 
readily  select  the  right  cords  for  pulling  down,  in  order 
to  form  the  design,  line  by  line,  as  it  was  woven. 

At  page  62  it  was  stated  that  on  a  frame  of  tightly 
stretched  threads,  without  any  mechanical  appliance 
whatever,  the  weaver  could  produce  the  most  intricate 
webs.  In  the  same  manner  it  may  be  said,  that,  this 
simplest  form  of  draw-loom  allows  the  greatest  liberty 
for  the  designer  within  the  limits  arranged  for  the  repeat 
of  the  pattern.  Within  those  limits  the  weaver  has 
control  of  every  thread  of  warp  so  that  any  variety 
of  ties,  satin,  twill,  or  tabby,  can  be  woven  at  will  in 
different  parts  of  the  same  design.  In  fact,  no  inter- 
section of  warp  and  weft  can  be  devised  which  cannot 
be  worked  out  on  the  tie-up  of  the  simple  cords,  in  the 
way  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

Small  Designs  only  Possible  on  Thread  Mounture. — 
Although  this  single  thread  monture  is  the  most  perfect 
and  adaptable  one,  it  is,  in  the  case  of  fine  silk,  only 
practicable  for  very  small  designs.  Silk  is  often  woven 
400  threads  to  an  inch  ;  so  that  for  a  design  only  two 
or  three  inches  in  width,  the  simple  would  have  to  con- 
sist of  from  800  to  a  1,000  cords  on  which  to  tie  up  the 
pattern.  This  would,  of  course,  involve  much  tedious 
labour  in  preparing  the  loom,  and  would  render  the 
production  of  wide  designs  almost  impossible. 

In  order  to  overcome  this  difficulty,  and  render  the 
weaving  of  wide  and  noble  designs,  in  silk,  possible,  the 
double  moimting  was  devised.  This  is  shown,  as  we 
have  seen,  in  the  Chinese  loom  (A,  Plate  7,  p.  74). 

Diaper  Weaving. — There  is  an  ingenious  system  of 
working  two  ordinary  harnesses  together  on  one  warp, 
with  a  double  set  of  treadles,  called  Diaper  weaving, 
which  is  supposed  by  some  authorities  to  have  been 
used  in  ancient  Rome,    It  is  certain  th^t  it  was  known 


THE  SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  DRAW-LOOM 


87 


of  and  practised,  in  Arabia  and  the  East  generally,  at  a 
very  ancient  date.  It  is  a  similar  method  of  weaving 
to  that  by  which  chequer  table-cloths  are  made,  in  linen 
and  cotton,  at  the  present  day,  and  is  a  very  admirable 
and  clever  kind  of  device.  It  is  not  necessary  to  explain 
it  here,  but  it  is  mentioned  because  it  probably  led  up  to 
the  invention  of  another  method  of  small  pattern  weaving 
in  silk,  in  which  two  independent  harnesses  are  used. 
It  was  this  double-harness  weaving  which  no  doubt 
suggested  the  combination  of  the  draw-loom  and  headle 
harness,  in  one  mounting  for  larger  designs,  which  we 
see  exemplified  in  the  Chinese  loom  (A,  Plate  7,  p.  74). 

Double-Harness  Weaving. — Fig.  35  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  double-harness  method  of  weaving.  At  A  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  design  is  formed  of  groups  in 
which  there  are  never  less  than  eight  threads.  Also 
that  the  black  weft  intersects  the  white  warp  only  at 
the  edges  of  the  design.  At  B  the  same  design  is 
shown,  but  the  necessary  intersections  for  the  weaving 
of  eight-headle  satin  are  added,  in  order  to  weave  the 
silk  into  a  solid,  figured  web.  The  portion  at  A  shows 
the  work  of  the  figure  harness,  lifting  the  pattern  in 
large;  and  that  at  B  shows  that  of  the  ground  or 
binder  harness,  tying  it  together. 

The  Manner  of  Working  Two  Harnesses  Together. — 
Fig.  36  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  two  harnesses 
work  together.  No.  1 ,  is  the  section  of  a  warp ;  A,  is  the 
front  roller,  B,  is  a  leash  of  the  figure  harness,  which 
is  entered  with  eight  threads  of  silk,  C,  C,  are  eight 
leashes  of  the  ground  harness,  one  from  each  of  the 
eight  headles  of  which  it  is  composed.  The  leashes  of 
this  harness,  it  must  be  particularly  noticed,  have  long 
eyes,  through  which  the  threads  are  entered,  singly,  in 
regular  succession.  No.  2  is  a  bird's-eye  view,  which 
will  further  elucidate  the  arrangement. 


88 


SILK 


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Hi::::: 


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Fig.  35.     Double-Harness  Weaving 


V 


* 


I 


THE   SIMPLE   AND  COMPOUND   DRAW-LOOM 


89 


If  one  of  the  four  headles  of  a  harness,  having  leashes 
such  as  those  represented  at  B,  Fig.  36,  be  raised,  and 
the  front  harness  C  C  be  left  at  rest,  the  effect  shown 
at  Fig.  35  A,  can  be  woven  by  working  that  harness  only. 


Fig.  36.     Diagram  of  Double  Harness 

But  in  order  to  obtain  the  effect  shown  at  B  (Fig.  35), 
the  front  harness  must  have  one  of  its  headles  raised 
and  another  depressed,  as  shown  at  No.  3,  Fig.  36. 
Headle  D  makes  the  ties  on  the  white  portion  of  the 
web  and  headle  E  makes  those  on  the  black  figure,  as 
the  weft  is  passed  through  the  opening,  or  shed,  made  by 
the  two  harnesses  working  together.  ^ 

*  This  will  be  more  fully  explained  in  the  chapter  on  Sati^} 
Damask. 


I 


90 


SILK 


Object  of  Double-Harness  Weaving. — ^There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  this  method  of  weaving,  with  two  harnesses, 
was  invented  for  the  express  purpose  of  enabUng  the 
weaver  to  weave  designs  of  increased  and  reasonable 
size,  notwithstanding  the  extreme  fineness  of  the  threads 
of  silk  composing  his  warp.  For  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  six  threads  of  silk  only  occupy  the  space  of 
one  thread  of  the  finest  cotton. 

This  double-harness  method  of  weaving,  even  when 
only  headles  were  used  for  the  pattern  harness,  immensely 
increased  the  possible  size  of  designs  ;  but  when  in  place 
of  the  harness  of  headles,  the  draw-loom  was  substituted, 
its  possibilities  were  astonishingly  increased. 

Four,  six,  eight,  ten,  or  any  reasonable  number  of 
warp  threads  may  be  arranged  to  be  lifted  by  each 
leash  of  the  draw-loom  ;  so  that,  supposing  there  are 
400  threads  of  silk  to  an  inch  in  the  warp,  and  400 
leashes,  each  lifting  ten  threads  in  every  repeat  of  the 
comber  board,  a  design,  ten  inches  in  width,  can  be 
lifted,  in  large,  by  the  draw-loom  monture.  This  large 
design,  when  bound  together  by  the  ties,  put  in  by  the 
front  harness,  results  in  a  web,  solidly  woven,  having  a 
design  ten  inches  in  width,  instead  of  one  of  only  an  inch, 
which,  as  explained  on  page  86,  is  the  largest  practicable 
on  a  thread  monture. 

The  effect,  on  the  design,  of  lifting  several  threads 
together  is  by  no  means  a  disadvantage.  The  outlines 
of  the  ornamental  forms  are  broken  up  into  steps,  and 
this  adds  point  and  character  even  to  the  finest,  boldest 
designs. 

The  size  of  the  design  can  be  further  enlarged  by 
arranging  the  comber  board  for  what  is  called  a  point 
repeat.  Fig.  37  shows  how  the  comber  board  is  set  out 
for  this  repeat,  and  the  leashes  connected  to  the  pulley 
cords. 


THE    SIMPLE    AND    COMPOUND    DRAW-LOOM 


91 


Difference  between  Point  and  Comber  Repeats. — In 

this  diagram  a  design  on  eighteen  lines  is  shown  (as  in 
Fig.  32),  which  should  be  compared  with  it.  In  Fig.  32 
the  design  repeats  exactly  four  times  in  the  width. 
But  in  Fig.  37,  although  the  design  actually  repeats 


(ill  •■•■•■•iiai 


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'If. ..'Ill"'""  ■•  "•miiin     ••■ 


Fig.  37.     Point  Repeating  Monture 


four  times,  it  inclines  twice  to  tRe  right  and  twice  to 
the  left ;  so  that  it  only,  in  effect,  repeats  twice  in  the 
whole  width,      A  careful  study  of  the  two  diagrams 


92 


SILK 


will  make  clear  how   this  is  effected,  and  requires  no 
further  explanation. 

By  means,  then,  of  the  point  repeat  thus  arranged  on 
the  monture  of  the  compound  draw-loom,  the  width  of 
the  design,  on  a  fine  silk  warp,  may  easily  be  increased 
from  I  inch  to  20,  and  this  by  the  use  only  of  the  same 
number  of  leashes  in  the  monture  itself. 

Chinese  Draw-loom  Weavers.— If  the  reader  will  now 
turn  to  A,  Plate  7,  p.  74,  in  which  the  Chinese  draw-loom 
is  represented,  its  working  will  be  clearly  understood,  and 
the  division  of  labour  between  the  two  weavers  will  be 
appreciated.  The  man  at  the  back  is  engaged  in  draw- 
ing the  cords  for  the  formation  of  the  design,  and  the 
weaver  seated  in  front  of  the  loom  is  working  the 
headles  for  forming  the  ground  and  binders,  and  throwing 
the  shuttles  carrying  the  weft. 

The  Chinese  name  for  the  assistants'  work  in  the  draw- 
loom  is  the  expressive  one  Pang  hua,  which  means  : 
"  PuUing  the  flowers." 


Q 

«   H 

w  z  o    <» 


2 

< 


(A 

QO    W 


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Ph 


o 


CHAPTER    XIII 

SATIN   DAMASK  WEAVING 

The  most  Perfect  Textile.— Although  not  so  gay  and 
brilliant  as  the  multi-coloured  brocades,  tissues,  and 
embroideries  for  which  the  Chinese  have  always  been 
famous,^  the  kind  of  silk  weaving  now  called  satin 
damask  is  the  most  perfect  in  texture,  and  ingenious  in 
construction  of  all  textile  fabrics. 

This  form  of  weaving  is  also  a  Chinese  invention.  In 
some  of  the  most  gorgeous  brocaded  and  embroidered 
webs  of  ancient  China,  figured  satin  is  used  as  a  ground- 
work with  splendid  effect.  A,  Plate  8,  is  photographed 
from  a  Chinese  yellow  satin  damask  in  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum. 

Description  of  Satin  Damask  Technique.  —  Satin 
damask  is  a  two  harness  system  of  weaving,  and  for 
webs  of  large  design  requires  the  use  of  a  compoimd 
draw-loom. 

The  definition  of  the  design  in  damask  weaving 
depends  on  the  difference  between  the  front  and  back 
surfaces  of  satin  webs.  Plain  or  tabby  weaving  has  no 
right  or  wrong  side,  the  two  surfaces  being  exactly  alike. 
This  is  not  the  case  with  twills  or  satins. 

As  pointed  out  at  page  69,  70,  etc.,  the  front  of  a 
plain  satin  is  nearly  all  warp  and  the  back  nearly  all 
weft.  This,  even  when  warp  and  weft  are  of  the  same 
colour,  makes  a  marked  difference  between  the  surfaces. 
As  the  long  warp  loops,  on  the  front,  are  longitudinal 

*  As  it  is  impossible  to  describe  these  at  length,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Chinese  Art  and  Handloom  Weaving  previously 
mentioned. 

94 


SATIN   DAMASK  WEAVING 


95 


Ifia   •■••ftM    •••■»•■    •■■••■•   ■■«■«■■   ■      ■■■•■■ 

maaavaa   ■■■■■•■    ■■«■■■■    ■■■    ■■■■■■ 

■■•■■   !■■■■■■   •■■*«■    ««■•■■ 


••■■■    ■•■    •••■■■•    ■•••■■h    %■■■»■■   «B*t«a   •■■■■• 
■•■•«    •■■••■•■    ■■«••§■    ■■4»*a*    ■■■•■■<    ■   ■•■■■■ 

■■«■■    ■■    ■•>•»•*    ■(«§•«■    ■■•■■•«    ■■■•«»■   •■•■■■ 

■«■■■    ■•■••■«    •••■•■r    ■■»••■■    ■■•■■■■   «•   ■«■■•• 

■■■•S   •    *■■■■>■    ■•■•■•■    ■■•ia»a    ■«■»■■■   »»■■■• 

:.:::!■::.  ;r:-;:.:  :::::: 


■■•■■  ■■>*>•■■■  ■         •      ■■■■■  ■■•  ■■••■■I 

■  •  ■■■•  •■■• 


:::::  s::"-:   •  . ' 


i 


•  ■«■■■•■■  ■■■■■■ 

::■:;.;::  ;;:::: 


iliii 


! 


•  •■■■    t  ■■•«■■■■■■■■•«•■■■■■■■■»■■■■■■■■■    PI 


■  ••■■■••■•    "     .  *• 

■  •■■■•a  •■■■.--■■■■■Bsaa •■«•■••■ ■kap««aB«ai 


Fig.  38.    Draught  of  Satins 


96 


SILK 


i 


r 


and  those  of  the  weft,  at  the  back,  latitudinal,  the  light 
falling  on  them  is  reflected  differently  from  each.  If 
both  were  photographed  in  a  similar  side  light,  one 
would  appear  dark  and  the  other  light.  But,  if  warp 
and  weft  be  of  contrasting  colours,  the  difference  is,  of 
course,  still  more  obvious.  Fig.  38,  No.  1,  represents 
a  warp  satin,  and  No.  2  the  reverse  or  weft  satin. 

It  is  possible  to  so  arrange  that  both  satin  and  reverse 
satin  are  brought  together  interchangeably  on  both  sur- 
faces of  a  web  in  any  shapes  desired.  Thus,  the  groimd 
of  a  design  may  be  in  satin  of  the  warp  and  the  figure 
in  weft  satin,  on  the  front  surface  At  the  back  the 
figure  will  then  be  in  warp  satin,  and  the  ground,  weft 
satin.  In  other  words,  if  the  warp  be  white  and  the 
weft  black,  on  the  front  the  figure  will  be  black  on  a 
white  ground,  and  at  the  back,  white  on  a  black  ground. 
Of  course,  according  to  the  more  or  less  frequency  of 
the  ties,  the  white  will  be  tinged  with  black,  and 
the  black,  with  white.  This  effect  is  shown  at  No.  3. 
Fig.  38  and  Fig.  39  will  explain  its  working. 

Working  of  Damask  Harness  and  Monture. — In  Fig.  39 
four  sections  of  a  damask  warp  in  a  compound  draw- 
loom  are  shown.  The  thick  horizontal  line,  in  each 
number,  represents  a  warp  of  white  silk  of  any  number 
of  threads  entered,  five  in  each  leash  of  the  monture  A. 
Below  B  is  a  harness  of  five  headles,  having  leashes 
with  long  eyes,  as  described  at  page  89.  Through 
these  eyes  the  warp  threads  are  all  entered  singly  in 
regular  order.  Below  C  are  ruled  paper  drawings  of 
fifteen  spaces  wide.  These  show  the  effect  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  threads  in  the  several  numbers,  the  warp 
being  intersected  with  a  black  weft. 

At  No.  1  all  is  at  rest,  and  if  the  weft  be  thrown 
across  it  will  simply  lie  on  the  top  of  the  warp.  This  is 
shown  by  the  black  squares  all  being  filled  in.     At  No.  2, 


SATIN   DAMASK  WEAVING 


97 


one  leash  of  the  figure  monture  has  been  raised,  and  the 
effect  is  shown  on  the  ruled  paper.  The  weft  has  passed 
under  the  five  threads  raised  by  the  leash  and  over  the 
threads  left  at  rest.  At  No.  3  the  fourth  headle  has 
been  raised,  as  well  as  the  leash  of  the  figure  monture. 
This  has,  of  course,  no  effect  on  the  five  threads  already 


(D 


mm  III  i  ^ 


Fig.  39.     Diagram  of  Double  Harness 

up,  but  has  made  a  tie  on  the  two  spaces  of  weft,  on 
each  side  of  the  figure.  At  No.  4,  not  only  are  the 
fourth  headle  and  the  leash  of  the  monture  held  up, 
but  the  third  headle  of  the  harness  is  held  down.  The 
latter  has  no  effect  on  the  warp  threads  which  are 
down,  but  the  third  thread,  in  every  group  of  five  raised, 
is  prevented  from  rising,  and  the  weft  passing  over  it, 

7-(i468) 


96 


SILK 


has  made  a  tie  on  the  satm  figure.  It  follows  that, 
whether  few  or  many  of  the  figure  leashes  are  raised  in 
successive  lines  of  the  design,  the  ground  and  figure 
will  be  tied  at  regular  intervals,  on  both  back  and  front 
of  the  web,  by  the  working  of  the  front  harness. 

An  inspection  of  any  fine  collection  of  textiles  will 
show  that  some  of  the  noblest  European  silken  webs 
have  been  woven  in  this  damask  method,  a  method 
which  has  a  rightful  claim  to  be  described  as  the  most 
perfect  system  of  pattern  weaving.  It  may  claim  to  be 
this,  because  the  design,  in  satin  damask,  is  wrought 
into  the  very  texture  of  the  web  itself,  and  cannot  be 
picked  out  or  separated  from  it. 


Fig.  40.     Woven  Arabic  Inscription 


CHAPTER   XIV 

SILK  WEAVING  IN  THE  EAST  TO  A.D.    1200 

Silk  Weaving  extensively  Practised  in  the  East.— By 

the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  technique  of  silk 
weaving,  as  so  far  described,  was  practised  throughout 
Asia,  and  was,  to  the  people  of  the  East,  one  of  the 
chief  modes  of  artistic  expression. 

Styles  of  Eastern  Design.— The  styles  of  ornamenta- 
tion in  Eastern  textiles  previous  to  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  and  the  productions  of  the  different 
countries,  are  very  difficult  to  distinguish  one  from 
another,  especially  as  authentic  examples  of  any  but 
Coptic  and  Byzantine  webs  are  so  exceedingly  rare. 
Broadly  speaking,  however,  Chinese  designs  are  charac- 
terized by  a  natural  treatment  of  flowers  and  other 
objects,  and  easily  recognized  and  oft-repeated  symbolic 
forms.  ^  The  Chinese  work  is,  as  a  rule,  extremely  fine 
and  delicate,  as  well  as  being  gay  and  brilliant,  but  not 
gaudy,  in  colour.  ^ 

Ancient  Corean  and  Japanese  designs  are  rather  more 

»  For  lists  of  these,  see  Dr.  Bushell's  Chinese  Art. 

99 


100 


SILK 


r 


4 


"  1 


conventional  in  treatment  than  the  Chinese,  but  with 
a  fine,  not  a  childish  or  ignorant,  conventionalism. 

B,  Plate  8,  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  Chinese  or 
Persian  silk  weaving  on  the  draw-loom.  It  is  most 
probably  a  Chinese  rendering  of  a  Saracenic  design, 
the  arrangement  being  Saracenic  and  the  details  Chinese. 
The  inscription,  in  Arabic  characters,  signifies  "  Glory 
to  our  Lord  the  King,  the  just  and  learned  Niisir  Eldin." 
It  is  possible  that  the  web,  of  which  it  is  a  fragment, 
was  woven  in  China  as  a  present  for  the  Sultan  Nasir 
Eldin,  who  reigned  in  Persia  1233  to  1341  a.d.  This 
Plate  is  photographed  from  Lessing's  superb  book  of 
reproductions  of  the  textile  treasures  of  the  Berlin 
Museum. 

Saracenic  Weaving  and  Design. — ^This  beautiful  speci- 
men of  Chino-Saracenic  silk  weaving,  with  its  inscrip- 
tion, naturally  suggests  a  notice  of  the  great  part  played 
by  inscriptions  in  the  ornamental  silk  textile  of  Sara- 
cenic or  Arabian  production.  ^  "  Glory  to  our  Lx)rd  the 
Sultan,"  "  Glory,  victory,  and  long  life  "  (see  Fig.  40), 
"  There  is  no  God  but  God,"  "  There  is  no  Conqueror 
but  God,"  and  such  like  short  sentences  and  ejaculations, 
arranged  in  separate  compartments  or  interlaced  with 
traceries  of  intricate  design,  from  which  we  get  our  word 
Arabesques,  are  most  frequent.  In  one  extensive  branch 
of  Saracenic  design,  representations  of  animal  or  vege- 
table life  were  excluded  ;  but  in  another,  particularly 
in  Persia,  they  were  freely  used. 

The  Woven  Art  of  India.— In  the  woven  art  of  India 
the  greatest  use  was  made  of  the  human  figure,  of  beasts 
and  birds  of  various  kinds,  and  more  or  less  vigorous 
and  naturalistic  pictures  of  the  chase.    These  Indian 

*  There  are  many  interesting  specimens  of  these  to  be  seen 
in  the  Textile  Department  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum, 
some  dating  from  very  early  times. 


\ 


SILK  WEAVING  IN  THE  EAST  TO  A.D.    1200        101 

hunting  scene  fabrics  appear  to  have  been  very  popular 
in  ancient  Greece.  Homer,  describing  the  ornament  on 
a  king's  robe,  says  : — 

"  In  the  rich  woof  a  hound  mosaic  drawn 
Bore  on  full  stretch  and  seized  a  dappled  fawn  ; 
Deep  in  his  neck  his  fangs  indent  their  hold  : 
They  pant  and  struggle  in  the  moving  gold." 

Homer.     Odyssey,   Book  19. 

Coptic  and  Byzantine  design  in  textiles  partook  of  the 
nature  of  most  of  the  above,  and  mixed  with  them 
classic  ornament  and  the  symbols  and  scenes  of  Chris- 
tianity, as  well  as  the  striking  incidents  of  BibUcal 
history,  in  a  simple  and  childlike  manner  (Fig.  41). 

Perfection  of  Oriental  Weaving. — Although  so  few 
specimens  of  ancient  Oriental  silk  weaving  remain  to  us, 
there  are  sufficient  to  prove  that,  by  the  end  of  the 
tenth  century  a.d.  from  Constantinople  to  the  Far  East, 
and  from  China  to  Southern  India,  the  manipulation  of 
silk  in  textile  art,  and  the  mechanism  of  the  loom,  had 
reached  to  a  pitch  of  perfection  which  has  seldom,  if 
ever,  been  surpassed,  either  for  quality  of  craftmanship, 
beauty  of  texture,  or  ingenuity  of  design. 


Fig.  41.     Coptic  Ornament 


I 


Fig.  42.     Sicilian  Woven  Ornament 


CHAPTER    XV 

THE   INTRODUCTION   OF  SILK  WEAVING   INTO   EUROPE 

Silk  Weaving  in  Italy. — Silk  weaving  and  sericulture, 
which,  we  have  seen,  were  so  long  practised  throughout 
Asia  with  so  much  success,  are  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  Sicily  and  Venice  and  various  parts  of  Italy 
in  the  twelfth  century  by  Saracenic  craftsmen.  These 
skilful  artificers  had  been  captured  in  war  and  brought 
as  slaves  to  Italy,  or  induced  by  fair  promises  of  patron- 
age to  settle  there,  and,  setting  up  their  looms  and 
arranging  their  other  appliances,  they  there  carried  on 
their  beautiful  and  ingenious  arts. 

Traditional  stories  are  related,  by  many  authors,  of 
the  circumstances  under  which  this  introduction  of  the 
finer  textile  arts  into  Italy  took  place.  These  stories 
may  be  true  or  not,  but  they  add,  at  any  rate,  the 
glamour  of  romance  to  this  interesting  and  important 
event,  or  rather  events  ;  for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
between  the  tenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  which  were 
times  of  great  adventure  and  activity  in  all  departments 
of  life,  many  of  these  compulsory  or  voluntary  settle- 
ments of  silk  weavers  and  other  handicraftsmen  took 
place. 

Trade   in    Silken  Webs. — ^The   productions    of     the 

102 


4i 


H 


«3  ^ 


o 


P. 


< 


(A 

P 


H 
ID 


U)  o 


o 


a, 


55 


< 
C/) 


Oi 


p 

H 

z 

wo 

H 

< 


O 


104 


SILK 


fascinating  textile  art,  thus  introduced,  soon  became 
notable  commodities  of  commerce  in  the  districts  where  the 
Oriental  silk  weavers  established  themselves  and  com- 
menced their  work.  Palermo  and  Venice  soon  became 
famous  throughout  Europe  as  the  centres  of  an  exten- 
sive trade  in  the  costly  webs  of  silk  and  gold  thread 
made  in  the  various  districts  of  the  country  where  the 
new  weaving  industry  took  root  and  flourished. 

Introduction  to  Spain. — Although  there  seems  to  be 
no  definite  record  of  the  fact,  it  is  probable  that  silk 
weaving  was  done  in  Spain  at  an  earlier  date  than  in 
Italy.  The  conquering  Moors,  whose  Oriental  charac- 
teristics made  such  an  indelible  impression  on  the  arts 
and  life  of  Spain,  no  doubt  brought  silk  weaving 
together  with  metal  working  and  other  Arabian  handi- 
crafts, with  them  when,  in  the  ninth  century,  they  con- 
quered and  overran  that  country.  The  early  Moresque 
webs,  however,  seem  to  have  been  little  esteemed  in 
Europe,  for  it  was  from  Italy  that  the  silken  fabrics 
were  distributed,  and  the  art  of  silk  weaving  itself 
spread  into  France,  Germany,  and  finally  to  England. 
The  reason  of  this  is  not  far  to  seek.  In  Spain,  the 
Moresque  art  of  the  conquerors  naturally  remained 
purely  Arabian  and,  therefore,  alien  in  style,  even  so 
late  as  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  But  in 
Italy,  where  the  craftsmen  did  not  belong  to  the  domi- 
nant classes,  the  Eastern  elements  of  design  were  early 
blended  with  the  existing  art  of  the  country,  and  formed 
a  composite  style  of  ornament  which  was  fresh  and  new, 
but  not  too  unfamiliar  to  become  popular.  Plate  9 
gives  two  examples  of  Spanish  webs  of  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries.  They  are  seen  to  be  purely 
Arabian  in  design,  although  the  Moors  had  certainly 
been  in  Spain  more  than  six  centuries  when  they  were 
woven. 


INTRODUCTION    OF  SILK  WEAVING   INTO   EUROPE      lOS 

Introduction  of  Silk  into  England.— It  is  probable  that 
there  was  yet  another  early  introduction  of  silk  workers 
to  Europe  from  the  East,  this  time  into  England  ;  for 
early  in  the  fourteenth  century  there  is  recorded  an  Act 
of  Parliament  which  was  passed  to  protect  "certain  old- 
established  silk  women  against  Lombards  and  other 
Italians  who  brought  such  quantities  of  silk  threads  and 
ribands  into  the  country  that  the  established  native 
throwsters  were  impoverished."  By  this  Act  the  impor- 
tation of  such  articles  was  forbidden.  This  is  the  first 
definite  reference  to  silk  weaving  on  record  in  England. 
A  little  after  this  time  English  embroidery  in  silk 
became  famous  throughout  Europe,  and  was  much  in 
demand.  These  early  throwsters  and  weavers  were, 
therefore,  no  doubt,  employed  in  making  and  twisting 
up  raw  silk,  obtained  at  great  cost  from  the  East,  into 
threads  for  the  embroiderers,  and  in  weaving  the 
webs  of  diaper  silk  and  cloth  of  gold  on  which  the 
embroideries  were  usually  worked. 

Early  English  Embroidery. — ^The  Syon  Cope,  ^  which 
is  generally  considered  the  finest  specimen  of  Early 
English  needlework,  is  said  to  have  been  worked 
in  the  thirteenth  century  by  nuns  in  a  convent  near 
Coventry.  In  the  fifteenth  century  it  belonged  to  a 
convent  at  Isleworth,  in  connection  with  the  monastery 
of  Syon,  and  at  the  dissolution  of  the  monastery  was 
carried  by  the  nuns  to  Lisbon,  where  they  took  refuge. 
Here  their  convent  was  twice  destroyed  by  earthquakes, 
and  after  several  migrations,  they  returned  to  this 
country.  In  Staffordshire  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury 
provided  them  with  a  home  ;  and  in  gratitude  they 
presented  him  with  this  their  most  precious  relic.     The 

»  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  South  Kensington.  A  small 
reproduction  of  this  fine  work  would  be  of  little  value.  The 
actual  embroidery  should  be  seen  and  studied  in  the  Museum. 


106 


SlLK 


Earl  of  Shrewsbury  bequeathed  it  to  the  nation,  and 
now  it  is  one  of  the  chief  treasures  in  the  fine  collection 
at  Kensington.  Its  expressive  sacred  scenes,  its 
traceries  and  emblems,  its  heraldic  devices  correctly 
blazoned,  its  subdued  but  exquisite  colours,  and  the 
richness  of  its  material,  combined  with  its  perfect  stitch- 
ery  render  it  the  most  extraordinary  and  beautiful 
existing  specimen  of  the  art  of  the  embroiderer. 

There  is  another  piece  of  undoubted  English  embroi- 
dery of  the  fourteenth  century  preserved  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum.  It  is  particularly  interesting, 
because  of  the  ground  of  plain  silk  velvet,  with  a  cut 
pile,  on  which  it  is  worked.  Specimens  of  such  silk 
velvet,  whether  plain  or  figured,  are  extremely  rare  of 
earlier  date  than  the  fifteenth  century.  But  at  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  or  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth,  silk  velvet  weaving  reached  its  highest 
perfection  both  in  Asia  and  Europe.  ^ 

Whether  the  inventor  of  the  process  of  velvet  weaving 
was  Italian,  Spanish,  Saracenic,  or  Chinese,  cannot  be 
determined,  but  the  invention  itself  was  quite  an 
original  one,  as  hitherto  all  attempts  to  weave  a  web, 
having  a  pile  surface,  had  been  made  by  knotting  in  the 
weft,  on  a  stretched  warp,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
pile  of  Persian  carpets  is  still  made.  The  most  wonder- 
ful specimen  of  this  ancient  kind  of  pile  weaving  is  the 
Persian  cope,  also  in  the  Kensington  collection.  This 
knotted  pile  has  about  1,000  knots  of  silk,  separately 
tied  and  cut,  to  every  square  inch. 

*  For  a  description  of  the  process  of  velvet  weaving,  see 
Hand-loom  Weaving,  by  the  Author. 


CHAPTER   XVl 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  EUROPEAN   SILK  WEAVING 

Italy  the  Source  of  European  Silk  Weaving.— Although, 
as  we  have  seen,  it  was  not  only  through  Italy  that  silk 
was  introduced  to  the  Western  world  from  the  East,  it 
was  from  that  country  that  the  knowledge  was  obtained 
from  which  the  vast  European  industries  dealing  with 
silken  thread  have  been  developed. 

Restricted  Meaning  of  Word  Damask.— At  first,  all 
kinds  of  silken  webs  were  known  as  damasks,  probably 
because  Damascus  had  been  a  famous  mart  for  their 
export  before  they  were  made  in  Italy.  The  word 
damask,  however,  afterwards  became  restricted  in  its 
meaning  to  the  kind  of  weaving  described  in  Chap.  XIII. 
Other  kinds  became  known  as  brocades,  brocatels, 
tissues,  and  by  many  other  names.  ^ 

During  the  three  centuries  in  which  the  Italians  were 
able  to  keep  to  themselves  the  secrets  of  sericulture, 
and  the  monopoly  of  silk  weaving,  the  style  of  design, 
of  course,  changed,  and  great  advances  were  made  in 
the  technique  of  the  webs  produced.  Anything  like 
an  adequate  description  of  these  would  fill  many 
volumes  such  as  the  present  one,  and  cannot  be  attempted 

here. 

Excellence  of  Italian  Silk  Weaving.— In  Italy,  during 
the  period  from  its  introduction  till  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, the  various  kinds  of  silk  weaving  mentioned  above 
were  brought  to  a  point  which  for  excellence  has  never 
been  surpassed,  whether  we  consider  their  design,  which 

1  See  Hand-loom  Weaving,  Luther  Hooper. 

107 


108 


SILK 


1 


was  of  the  noblest ;  their  colour,  which  was  the  most 
glowing  and  permanent ;  or  their  technique,  which 
appears  to  have  been  mechanically  perfect. 


Fig.  43.     Sicilian  Damask.     The  Hart  and  Sun  dog  Design 

Isolation  of  Italy  in  the  Middle  Ages.— A  striking 
evidence  of  the  isolation  of  the  different  countries 
of  Euroi^e,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  is  furnished  by  the 
fact  that  Italy  was  able  to  keep  to  herself  the  profitable 
mystery  of  silk  manufacture  and  pattern-weaving  for 
more  than  four  centuries  after  its  introduction  from  the 
East,  although  the  productions  of  the  Italian  looms  were 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   EUROPEAN   SILK  WEAVING     109 

so  highly  prized  and  so  much  sought  after  by  the  rest 

of  Europe. 

First  Silk  Weaving  in  France.— The  first  record  we 
have  of  silk  weaving  being  done  in  France,  is  to  the  effect 
that  a  few  Italian  weavers  escaped  into  that  country  m 
1480  and,  setting  up  their  looms,  started  silk  weaving. 
They  were  much  encouraged  by  the  French  authorities. 
Other  immigrations  followed,   from  time  to  time,  to 
various  towns  in  the  south  of  France.    The  ItaUan 
weavers  settled  chiefly  in  Lyons,  which  soon  became  a 
centre  and  mart  for  the  industry.    Although  thus  en- 
couraged, and  occasionally  favoured  by  the  notice  of 
royalty,  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 
that  sii  weaving  really  became  a  French  industry,  as 
up  to  that  time  it  was  carried  on  exclusively  by  ItaUans, 
who  took  with  them  ItaUan  ideas  of  design  and  method, 
and  who,  moreover,  could  only  cultivate  the  silkworm 
to  a  very  small  extent.     Owing  to  this,  it  is    ahnost 
impossible   to   distinguish   early  French  silk   weaving 
from  that  of  Italy.    Although  there  is  no  record  of  the 
fact    it  is  probable  that  the  same  thing  occurred   m 
regard  to  Germany  and  Flanders,  as  there  is  still  more 
difficulty  in  distinguishing  early  German  and  Flemish, 

from  Italian  webs. 

The  art  of  silk  weaving  and  the  practice  of  sericulture 
flourished  exceedingly  in  France  until  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  the  great  dispersal  of  silk 
weavers,  to  Protestant  countries,  took  place. 

Dispersal  of  Huguenot  French  Silk  Weavers.— Many 
thousands  of  these  persecuted  people  took  refuge  in 
England.  The  immigrants  introduced  their  handi- 
craft and  its  dependent  trades,  and,  settling  down,  soon 
became  of  inestimable  benefit  to  their  adopted  country. 

The  French  weavers  were  not  allowed  to  settle  in 
England  and  practice  their  handicraft  without  much 


110 


SILK 


opposition  from  the  English  silk  weavers  already  at 
work.  These,  in  fact,  petitioned  Parliament  to  forbid 
them,  alleging  that  the  strangers  had  no  right  to  work, 
as  they  had  not  been  apprenticed  here  ;  their  objections 
were,  however,  overruled,  and  the  Huguenots  were 
encouraged  by  the  authorities  to  settle  in  certain  dis- 
tricts, notably  at  Canterbury  and  Spitalfields.  The 
reinforced  silk  industry  quickly  grew,  and  pros{)ered 
exceedingly  for  rather  more  than  a  century.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  industrial  supremacy  of  Eng- 
land in  the  nineteenth  century  was  indirectly  due  to 
these  refugees. 

The  webs  woven  by  the  French  weavers  in  England 
were,  as  was  natural,  so  similar  in  character  to  the 
French,  that  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  them  as 
English,  just  as  we  have  seen  the  early  French  weaving 
was  undistinguishable  from  Italian. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  in  France  the  silk 
industry  soon  recovered  from  the  check  it  had  received 
owing  to  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  the 
French  designers  and  weavers  again  obtained  a  supre- 
macy in  the  art  which  they  have  ever  since  been  able 
to  maintain. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

ENGLISH   SILK  WEAVING  TO   ABOUT    1800 

We  have  already  seen  that  in  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth, 
and  fifteenth  centuries,  England  was  famous  for  its 
embroidery  in  silk  and  gold  ;  also  that  there  was  an 
incorporated  society  of  silk  workers,  and  weavers  of 
diaper  grounds. 

Richard  11*8  Embroidered  Coat. — ^There  is  one  other 
record  in  the  fifteenth  century  which  informs  us  that 
cloth  of  gold  and  silver  were  being  made  in  Lx)ndon, 
and  that  Richard  II  had  a  coat  of  cloth  of  gold  enriched 
with  embroidery  of  silk  and  precious  stones,  the  value  of 
which  was  31,000  marks. 

Refugees  from  Holland. — In  the  sixteenth  century, 
religious  persecution  broke  out  in  the  Netherlands,  the 
free  cities  of  which  were  at  that  time  famous  for  their 
success  in  the  practice  of  the  textile  arts.  The  oppres- 
sion of  the  Protestants  by  the  Duke  of  Alva,  acting 
under  orders  from  Spain,  became  so  grievous,  that  many 
of  the  best  craftsmen  left  their  native  towns,  and  came 
to  England,  craving  permission  to  settle  down  and  work 
at  their  trades  of  silk  weaving  and  other  crafts. 

Thousands  of  these  skilful  Hollanders  took  up  their 
abode  in  various  parts  of  the  East  Coast,  but  particularly 
at  Colchester  and  Norwich.  The  latter  city  owed  to  them 
the  subsequent  development  and  success  of  its  great 
weaving  industry. 

First  Draw-looms  in  England. — ^The  first  draw-looms 
for  weaving  silk,  damasks  and  velvets,  in  England  were 
set  up  by  these  refugees  in  Norwich  in  1567. 

Ill 


1 


112 


SILK 


John  Tice.— In  1573  John  Tice  attained  to  the  per- 
fection of  making  all  sorts  of  "  tufted  taffetas,  cloth  of 
gold  tissues,  wrought  velvet,  branched  satins,  and  other 
kinds  of  curious  silk  stuffs.' '  A  diarist  also  records  that 
"  Queen  Elizabeth  refused  to  wear  any  but  silk  stockings. " 
Formation  of  Livery  Companies  of  Silkmen.— In  1629 
the  Livery  Company  of  Silk  Throwsters  of  London  was 
formed,  and  in  1631  the  Company  of  Silkmen  was  also 
incorporated. 

Spun  Silk.— In  1671  a  patent  was  obtained  by  one 
Edmund  Blood,  for  carding  and  spinning  silk  waste  in 
a  similar  manner  to  that  of  cotton  spinning. 

These  notices,  brief  as  they  are,  all  point  to  the  fact 
that  a  great  deal  of  silk  was  used  at  that  time  in  this 
country,  although  the  chief  textile  industries  were 
concerned  with  wool  and  linen. 

Value  of  Imported  Silk,  1 686.— In  this  year  the  value 
of  raw  silk  imported  was  reckoned  at  £700,000. 

Huguenot  Immigration.— Between  1695  and  1700,  the 
Huguenots  sought  a  home  and  livehhood  in  England, 
and  gave  an  effective  impetus  to  the  textile  and  other 
industries  of  the  country,  especially  to  silk  weaving. 

Eighteenth  Century  Silk  Weaving.— The  story  of  silk 
weaving  during  the  eighteenth  century  in  England  is 
full  of  interest.  It  was  at  its  most  prosperous  point  in 
the  second  half  of  the  century,  when  it  even  threatened 
the  supremacy  of  Lyons  in  the  trade.  From  that  time, 
however,  it  began  to  decline.  There  were  many  causes 
for  this,  not  the  least  being  the  many  and  fierce  disputes 
which  took  place  between  masters  and  men,  as  more 
capital  began  to  be  invested  in  the  trade  ;  and  the 
fascination  which  parliamentary  and  legal  processes 
seem  to  have  had  for  both  parties.  The  unrest  and 
shifting  of  the  centres  of  trade,  which  accompanied  the 
rise  of  the  great  machine  industries,  also  affected  it. 


1^ 


ENGLISH  SILK  WEAVING  TO  ABOUT   1800        113 

But,  most  of  all,  the  absence  of  healthy  competition 
in  quality  of  craftsmanship,  resulting  from  the  strict  pro- 
hibition of  manufactured  silk  from  other  countries,  must 
be  considered  responsible  for  this  lamentable  decline. 

We  have  only  to  compare  the  later  Spitalfields,  and 
other  English  silks,  with  the  dainty  productions  of  China, 
India,  and  France  in  the  eighteenth  century  to  be 
confirmed  in  tliis  opinion.  The  silk  was  in  them — the 
best  silk,  and  more  than  enough  of  it,  but  the  dyeing, 
the  manipulation,  and  the  design,  were  all  very  inferior. 
The  Huguenot  traditions  of  French  art  had  gradually 
been  dissipated,  and  no  new  inspiration  had  arrived. 


8-(t4Aft) 


CHAPTER   XVIII 


MODERN   SILK  WEAVING 


Modern  silk  weaving  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with 
the  application  of  steam-power  to  the  loom,  and  the 
introduction  into  general  use  of  the  machine  invented, 
or  perfected,  by  Jacquard  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  By  means  of  this  machine  the  weaver's  "  tie- 
up  "  of  the  pattern  in  the  loom,  the  compUcated  system 
of  pulleys,  cords,  and  loops  necessary  for  raising  the 
warp  threads  for  the  formation  of  the  design,  and  the 
weaver's  assistant  (the  drawboy)  were  all  superseded. 

Difficulties  of  Power-loom  Invention. — Many  attempts 
had  been  made,  with  more  or  less  success,  to  devise 
machines  that  would,  when  actuated  by  imskilled  labour, 
or  water,  steam,  or  any  other  power,  weave  plain  cloth 
automatically.  These  attempts  always  failed  at  one 
point :  the  throwing  and  catching  of  the  shuttle.  And 
even  now,  after  more  than  a  himdred  years  of  experi- 
ment, it  is  just  at  this  point  that  the  hand-loom  is 
superior  to  the  power-driven  machine.  In  order  to 
confirm  this  statement,  it  is  only  necessary  to  watch 
and  compare  the  machine  and  the  man  in  this  particular. 

The  machine  drives  the  heavy  shuttle  with  a  force, 
noise,  and  clatter  that  seems  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
dehcate  thread  of  weft,  which  is  carried  across  the  still 
more  dehcate  threads  of  warp,  at  hghtning  speed.  The 
man  or  woman,  as  the  case  may  be,  sUently  and  gently 
throws  and  catches  the  light,  beautifully  curved  hand 
shuttle,  which  is  so  perfectly  adapted  for  its  purpose, 
with  astonishing  speed,  delicacy,  and  evenness, 

114 


MODERN   SILK  WEAVING 


115 


i 


John  Kay's  Fly-shuttle. — Until  about  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  all  shuttUng  had  been  done 
by  hand,  but,  in  1733,  John  Kay  invented  the  fly- 
shuttle  for  the  hand-loom.  ^  His  idea  was  that  wide 
webs,  which  had  hitherto  required  two  weavers  to  make 
— one  to  throw  and  the  other  to  catch  the  shuttle- 
might  be  woven  by  one  weaver  alone ;  and,  moreover, 
that  narrow  webs  might  be  woven  with  increased  speed. 
This  contrivance  was  seized  upon  by  the  inventors 
of  power-driven  looms,  and  their  difficulty  was  to  a 
certain  extent  overcome.  For  it  is  the  principle  of 
Kay's  invention,  with  slight  modifications,  that  has  been 
used  in  power  weaving  ever  since.  It  is  said  that  Kay 
spent  all  the  money  he  made  by  his  invention  in 
defending  his  patent  rights,  without  success. 

Chief  Difficulty  of  Power-loom  Invention  Removed 
by  Fly-shuttle. — John  Kay's  simple  invention  cleared 
the  way  for  the  practical  completion  of  the  power-loom, 
which,  however,  still  took  about  fifty  years  to  bring  into 
general  use.  In  1800  there  were  about  20,000  power- 
looms  at  work  in  Great  Britain,  weaving  plain  stuffs  of 
all  kinds  of  material,  and  about  250,000  hand-looms. 

Proportion  of  Power  to  Hand-looms. — At  the  present 
time,  in  this  country,  although  the  hand-loom  is  not 
extinct,  as  some  people  suppose,  the  demand  for  best 
goods,  which  cannot  be  made,  with  profit,  by  power,  is 
so  small  that  the  number  of  hand-looms  at  work  may 
be  easily  counted  by  hundreds. 

The  Jacquard  Machine. — While  the  power-loom  was 
thus  being  brought  into  use  in  England,  Jacquard,  in 
France,  was  completing  and  making  practical  his  inven- 
tion for  automatic  pattern  weaving.  When  the  machine 
was  successfully  finished,  Jacquard's  first  reward  was 

*  For  description  of  hand  and  fly-shuttles  and  appHances, 
see  Hand-loom  Weaving,  Luther  Hooper. 


116 


SILK 


a  public  prosecution,  and  the  ignominious  burning  of 
his  machines  and  models  in  the  market-place  of  Lyons. 
On  the  spot  (by  the  way)  on  which  this  was  done 
Jacquard's  statue  in  bronze  is  now  erected. 

In  about  twenty  years  after  its  completion,  Jacquard's 
machine  began  to  be  appreciated,  and  in  1820  some  were 
smuggled  into  England  and  secretly  set  up.  In  spite 
of  much  opposition,  they  soon  came  into  general  use, 
first  and  particularly  for  hand-looms  and  silk  weaving, 
but  afterwards  for  power-looms,  and  the  weaving  of  all 
kinds  of  fancy  and  ornamental  webs. 

Cards  for  the  Jacquard  Machine.— The  Jacquard 
machine,  in  the  modem  loom,  whether  the  latter  be 
actuated  by  the  hand  and  foot  of  the  weaver  or  by 
steam  power,  takes  the  place  of  the  pulley-box  of  the 
draw-loom  and  all  the  system  of  cords  beyond  it  (see 
Chap.  12).  Also  the  endless  band  of  cards,  on  which 
the  pattern  is  punched  out,  and  by  means  of  which  the 
design  is  formed  and  governed,  line  by  line,  in  the 
machine,  takes  the  place  of  the  weaver's  tie-up  on  the 
simple  cords.  ^ 

Ruled  Paper  Draughting.— With  regard  to  the  working 
out  of  the  design  on  ruled  paper,  or  draughting,  as  it  is 
called,  this  has  to  be  prepared  in  exactly  the  same  way 
for  both  the  draw-loom,  and  the  Jacquard  machine. 
The  draughts  prepared  for  any  of  the  seventeenth  or 
eighteenth  century  draw-loom  webs,  some  of  which  may 
be  seen  in  the  print  room  of  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  could  be  quite  readily,  and  without  alteration, 
read  on  to  cards,  and  woven  into  a  web,  on  any  most 
modem  pattern-loom.  It  is  necessary  particularly  to 
emphasise  this  point,  because  it  is  so  generally  lost 
sight  of.     Most  people  who  have  anything  to  do  with 

»  For  a  description  of  the  Jacquard  machine  and  its  method 
of  working,  see  Pariset's  Les  Industries  de  la  Soie,  p.  271.  etc. 


MODERN    SILK   WEAVING 


117 


weaving,  to  say  nothing  of  the  general  public,  suppose 
that  Jacquard  weaving^  as  it  is  called,  is  a  new  system 
altogether,  instead  of  being,  as  it  is,  only  an  ingenious 
substitute  for  an  unessential  adjunct  of  the  draw-loom. 

Facilities  given  by  the  Jacquard  Machine. — ^The  prin- 
cipal advantage,  if  it  may  be  considered  one,  of  the 
use  of  the  Jacquard  machine  is  the  facility  it  gives  for 
a  frequent  and  easy  change  of  pattern.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  take  down  one  set  of  cards,  and  put  up 
another,  in  order  to  change  the  design  in  a  loom.  The 
result  of  this  facility  was,  that,  the  early  nineteenth 
century  witnessed  a  perfect  orgie  of  fantastic  ornamenta- 
tion. When  once  a  set  of  cards  is  punched,  the  most 
elaborate  design  is  as  easy  to  produce  as  the  simplest, 
and  accordingly  the  manufacturers  of  that  time  vied 
with  each  other  as  to  the  number  and  originality  of  the 
patterns  they  could  produce.  The  profession  of  designer 
became  a  most  lucrative  one,  and,  in  fact,  as  a  profes- 
sion is  itself  an  outcome  of  the  invention  of  Jacquard. 
Previous  to  this  time  the  master  weavers,  or  someone 
in  touch  with  the  looms,  had  arranged  the  designs  on 
them,  and  these,  when  once  arranged,  were  good  for  a 
Hfetime.  But  with  the  new  draw  engine,  a  craving  for 
constant  change  had  the  result  described,  especially  in 
England. 

Wonderful  Scope  of  Jacquard  Machine. — For  good  or 
ill,  however,  the  Jacquard  machine  came  to  stay,  and 
since  its  general  adoption,  all  silk  pattern  weaving,  by 
hand  or  power,  has  been  done  by  its  means.  As  a 
work  of  mechanism  it  is  truly  wonderful,  for  it  can  be 
made  to  govern  all  the  operations  of  the  loom,  except 
throwing  the  shuttle  and  actuating  the  lever  by  which 
it  itself  works.  It  governs  the  pattern  and  ground, 
regulates  the  length  of  the  design,  changes  the  colours 
for  the  shuttles  in  proper  succession,  rings  a  bell  when 


118 


SILK 


certain  points  in  a  web  requiring  different  treatment 
are  reached,  regulates  the  take-up  of  the  woven  cloth 
on  the  front  roller,  and  many  other  details,  all  by 
means  of  a  few  holes  punched  in  a  set  of  cards.  Its 
great  defects  are  the  dreadful  noise  it  makes,  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  gets  out  of  order.  These  render  it 
only  suitable  for  factory  use,  where  noise  does  not  seem 
to  matter,  or  at  any  rate  has  to  be  endured,  and  where 
a  machinist  is  constantly  at  hand  to  keep  it  in  order. 

Advantage  of  Power  Weaving. — ^The  advantage  claimed 
for  the  power-loom  is,  of  course,  the  speed  at  which  its 
webs  are  produced.  This  speed  is,  however,  not  so 
great  as  at  first  appears.  The  careful  and  exact  pre- 
paration of  the  machine-loom  for  any  new  kind  of  work, 
and  the  looking  over,  cleaning,  and  otherwise  preparing 
the  warps  before  they  are  fit  to  work  in  the  machine,  all 
has  to  be  done  by  hand.  This  preparation,  if  added  to 
the  actual  time  occupied  in  weaving,  would  considerably 
lessen  the  yardage  produced  in  a  given  time.  Of  course, 
the  labour  is  not  so  skilled,  and  is,  therefore,  cheaper. 
If  great  quantities  of  one  kind  of  material  are  required, 
it  must  certainly  be  granted  that  weaving  them  by 
power  is  cheaper.  But  when  that  is  said,  all  that  can 
be  said  in  favour  of  weaving  by  power,  as  it  is  done  at 
present,  is  said. 

Disadvantage  of  Weaving  by  Power. — ^The  disadvantage 
of  weaving  by  power  is,  that  only  w^bs  which  can  be 
run  for  miles  and  are  sure  to  sell  largely,  for  stock,  are 
worth  weaving  at  all.  This  means  that  anything  special, 
of  which  only  moderate  quantities  are  required,  cannot 
be  obtained.  Now,  as  most  good  things  are  special, 
either  in  design,  colour,  or  manipulation,  with  only  the 
power-loom  at  work,  their  weaving  could  not  be  done  at 
all  at  a  profit.  It  is  just  here  that  the  useful  hand-loom 
comes  m. 


MODERN   SILK  WEAVING 


119 


Machinery  to  be  Improved,  not  Abandoned. — ^The  bad 
effect  of  the  monotonous  labour  on  the  hand  tending  a 
power-loom,  in  common  with  other  kinds  of  machinery, 
has  often,  of  late,  been  commented  on.  This  is  not  to 
be  obviated  by  abandoning  the  use  of  machines,  but 
rather  by  making  them  more  perfect  and  amenable. 
This  will  be  the  result  of  a  more  general  use  of  the 
electric  agency,  which  is  bound  sooner  or  later  to  bring 
about  a  revolution  in  the  principles  and  construction  of 
machines  for  silk  weaving,  amongst  other  things.  When 
this  happens,  the  ruthless,  noisy  monsters  of  steel  and 
wood,  which  were  the  pride  of  the  nineteenth  and  early 
twentieth  centuries,  will  be  things  to  wonder  at,  in  the 
museums  of  the  future. 

Adulteration  of  Silk. — ^The  fibre  of  silk,  unfortunately, 
lends  itself  particularly  to  scientific  adulteration,  which  is 
the  most  shameful  vice  of  manufacture  to-day.  Not  only 
does  silk  take  kindly  to  adulteration,  but,  in  the  general 
estimation,  looks  all  the  silkier  the  more  it  is  adidterated. 
Most  people  like  silk  to  look  very  bright  and  shiny,  for- 
getting that  pure  silk  shines  with  a  subdued  pearly 
lustre,  whether  only  boiled  off  and  freed  from  the  gum, 
or  dyed  with  pure  colour.  At  page  3  it  was  stated 
that  silk  has  a  great  affinity  for  water,  and  can  absorb 
about  one -third  its  own  weight  without  feeling  wet  to 
the  touch.  The  dyer  early  found  that  it  would  absorb 
other  things  beside  water,  muriate  of  tin  amongst  them. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  may  be,  and  indeed  is,  made  by 
the  dyer  to  take  up,  with  the  dye,  so  much  of  that  metal, 
that  twelve  ounces  of  boiled  silk  can  be  increased  in 
weight  to  eighty  ounces,  and  yet  look  like  very  bright 
silk.  This  scientific  dyeing  has  been  practised  to  uch  an 
extent,  that  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  purchase  in 
the  market  pure  silk  goods  that  will  stand  the  test  of 
wear  and  time.    They  are,  in  fact,  only  made  to  sell. 


120 


SILK 


The  writer  knew  of  a  piece  of  modem  silk,  made  in 
Spitalfields,  but  with  weft  dyed  in  Germany,  which 
being  put  away  in  a  drawer,  and  left  there  in  the  dark 
for  a  few  months,  was  then  tak  n  out,  at  least  what 
was  left  of  it ;  the  weft  had  gone  to  fine  powder,  and 
was  mixed  with  the  other  things  in  the  drawer.  With 
more  or  less  of  this  scientific  adulteration,  is  it  sur- 
prising that  modem  silks  crack  and  are  out  of  favour  ? 

Artificial  Silk. — ^There  is  not  much  to  say  about 
artificial  silk,  except  that  a  great  deal  of  it  is  being  used 
for  the  ornamental  parts  of  cheap  woollen  and  cotton 
webs,  for  which  purpose  it  is  quite  good  enough.  It  is 
also  used  largely  for  cheap  knitted  scarves  and  for 
trimmings.  There  are  three  kinds  on  the  market :  one 
made  from  gun-cotton,  one  from  wood  pulp,  and  the 
other  from  an  unknown  substance.  The  processes  are 
secrets,  and  the  makers  will  not  answer  questions  about 
them.  The  most  practicable  is  that  made  from  wood 
pulp.  This  is  digested  in  troughs  in  imitation  of  the 
alimentary  canal  of  the  silkworm,  and  from  this  trough 
it  is  forced  through  minute  orifices  and  reeled  in  the 
same  manner  as  cocoon  silk.  Possibly  if  made  of  mul- 
berry leaves,  it  might  be  more  like  real  silk,  but  it  would 
then  be  more  expensive  than  that  obtained  from  the 
silkworm  itself. 

The  price  of  artificial  is  about  one-third  per  lb.  that 
of  best  silk,  but  its  specific  gravity  b^ing  much  greater, 
if  of  equal  size,  the  length  of  thread,  weight  for  weight, 
is  only  from  half  to  two-thirds  that  of  real  silk,  so  that 
it  is  not  nearly  so  cheap,  in  comparison,  as  it  appears. 

Superiority  of  Spun  to  Artificial  Silk. — Artificial  silk 
works  out  at  about  the  same  price  as  good  spun  silk, 
made  from  waste  cocoons,  etc.  Spun  silk  is  a  far  better 
and  more  beautiful  thread,  and  is  certainly  much 
stronger.     Warps  can  be  made  from  it,  but  cannot  b^ 


V 


MODERN    SILK   WEAVING 


121 


made  from  artificial  silk.  There  is  no  doubt  that  spun 
silk  will  be  much  improved  and  more  and  more  used  in 
the  future,  for  there  are  many  silk-producing  moths 
whose  silk  is  not  strong  enough  for  reeling,  but  will  do 
admirably  for  spinning  into  good  thread.  ^ 

Centre!  of  Manufacture  and  Distribution. — As  to  the 
centres  of  silk  manufacture  and  distribution  to-day, 
China,  Japan,  and  India  still  control  the  East ;  France 
is  the  great  manufactory  and  mart  for  all  kinds  of  silken 
fabrics  ;  England  shares  with  France  the  honour  of 
producing  the  best  silk  textiles ;  and  Germany  is, 
perhaps,  greatest  with  the  cheaper  kinds. 

America  is  becoming  a  great  buyer  of  raw  silk,  which 
is  used  in  supplying  her  own  manufactories,  but,  at 
present,  does  not  distribute  much  woven  silk  to  other 
countries. 

*  For  tlie  process  of  spinning  waste  silk,  see  "  Cotton  "  of  the 
present  series.  The  spinning  of  waste  silk  is  exactly  the  same 
process  as  cotton  spinning. 


I 


. 


INDEX 


Act  for  protecting  silk  workers, 

105 
Adulteration  of  silk,  119 
Affinity  for  water,  83 
America,  large  buyers  of  raw 

silk,  121 
Anaphe,  curious  species  of,  15 
Ancient  weaving,  63 
Annual  production,  2 
Antheraa  Mylitta,   16 

Pemyi,   14 

Yama-Mai,   14 

Aristotle,  History  of  Animals, 

5,   17 
Artificial  silk,   120  ;  inferiority 

of,  120 
Atlas  moth,  14  ;     silk  of  little 

value,  14 
Automatic  weaving,  66 

Balloon    silk,  material    used 

for,  60 
Berlin   Museum,    textile   trea- 
sures in,  100 
Blood,  Edmund,  112 
Bombyx  Mori,    5 ;     life    story 
of,  8  ;    its  brief  duration.   1 1 
Book  of  Druggs,  31 
Brocaded  silk  webs,  61 
Brocading  metal  webs,  61 
Bushell,  Dr.,  34,  75,  99 

Centres  of  manufacture,  121 
Chemical  composition,  2 
China,  17  ;  the  home  of  silk, 
19 ;  secret  carefully  pre- 
served by,  20  ;  use  of  silk 
in,  65  ;  first  inventors  of 
weaving,  69  ;    large  trade  in 


China  {cont ) — 

webs,  72  ;  magnificence  of 
silk  made  in,  73  ;  modem 
indebtedness  to,  78;  draw- 
loom  weavers,  92  ;  another 
Chinese  invention,  94  ;  deli- 
cate work,  99 

Classification  of  dyes,  58 

Cleaning      silk      thread,      41  ; 
machines  used  for,    41 

Climate  for  sericulture,  27 

Cocoon,  the,  10  ;  the  breaking 
of,  11;    the  formation  of,  28 

Comber   Board,    the,    80 ;     in 
use,  81 

Commercial  value,  2 

Corea,  ConventionaUsm  of,  99 

Crossieur,  36 

Curse  of  modem  art,  the,  76 

Damask  harness  and  monture, 
the  working  of,  96  ;    mean- 
ing of,  107 
Diaper  weaving,  86 
Dionysius  Perigates,  2 
Diseases  of  silkworms,  29 
Double-harness  weaving,    87  ; 

objects  and  results  of,  90 
Doubling  and  folding,  44 
Draughting  on  ruled  paper,  116 
Draw-loom,  the,  79  ;    its  most 
essential  part,  79  ;    leashes, 
of,  80  ;    parts  of,  81  ;   auto- 
matic arrangement,  83  ;  the 
loom  tail,  84  ;    the  simple, 
84  ;   first  in  England,  111 
Dyeing,  48 ;    method  of,  49  ; 
the  dye  bare,  50  ;    requisi- 
tions for,   50 ;    turning  the 


123 


124 


INDEX 


Dyeing  [cont. 

skeins,    52 ;     the    mordant, 

52 ;  wringing,  53 ;  re-winding 

after.  58 
Dyes,   laws   relating    to,    57 ; 

classification    of,    58 ;     test 

for.  58 

East,   style  of  ornamentation 

in  the.  99 
Electricity,  coming  use  of.  119 
Embroidery,  silk  used  for,  61 
England,    sericulture   in,    23 ; 
prospects  of,  24  ;    introduc- 
tion of  silk  into,  105  ;    early 
embroidery.  105  [117 

Excellence  of  Italian  weaving, 

Farms,  requisite  fittings,  26  ; 

silkworm   eggs,   preparation 

for  hatching,  28 
Fibre,  fineness  of,  3  ;    strength 

of,  4  ;    reehng  from  cocoons. 

32 
Fibroin.    2 ;     its    appearance 

after  boihng.  3  ;    how  it  is 

made  and  stored,  8 
Flier,  the.  42 
France,  first  weavers  in.  109  ; 

character  of  webs  woven  in. 

110 
Friction  wheel,    the,  39  ;    ut- 
most importance  of.  39 
Fly-shuttle,  invention  of,  115 

Hand-looms,    superiority    of, 
114;    small  number  of,  115 

Hard  silk,  uses  for,  59 

Harness-weaving,  87  ;   method 
of.  87 

Headle  satin.  71 

Herodotus.  20 

Holland,     persecution     of 
weavers,  in.  Ill 

Homer's  Odyssey,  101 


India,  large  supply  from  12  ; 
Tusser  silk.  12 ;  introduc- 
tion of  silk  into,  21  ;  the 
woven  art  of,  100 

Italy,  flourishing  industry  in. 
24  ;  weaving  in.  102  ;  devel- 
opment from,  107 ;  excel- 
lence of  weaving  in,  107; 
isolation  of.   108 

Jacquard  Machine,  the.  115; 

early     objection     to.     1 16 ; 

principal  advantage  of.   117 
Japan,  introduction  into,  21  ; 

conventionalism  in,      100 
Justinian,  Emperor,  22 

Kay,  John,  inventor  of  the 
fly-shuttle.    115 

Law  relating  to  dyes.  57 

Livery  companies,  formation 
of.   112 

Lombe.  John,  pioneer  of  silk- 
throwing,  46 

Loom  for  pattern-weaving,  76  ; 
its  mechanism,  76 ;  its 
construction,  77  ;  the  loom- 
tail,  83 ;  superiority  of 
hand -loom,  114 

Lyons,  supremacy  of,  112 

MEDiiCVAL    craftsmen,   condi- 
tion of,  56 
Metallic  wefts,  61 
Mills,  silk  throwing,  47 
Modem  weaving,   65  ;     begin- 
ning of,  114 
Mordanting,   process  of,   52 
Mulberry  tree,  the  cultivation 
of.  25  ;   its  importance,  25 

Organzine.  use  for,  60 
Oriental   silk   weaving,    speci- 
mens of,  101 


Imperial  gifts  of  silks,  75  Parasitic  fly,  29 

Importedsilk,valuein  1686, 112      Persia,  weaving  in,  JOO 


INDEX 


125 


Pliny,  20 

Pomet,  M.,  History  of  Druggs, 
31 

Power-loom,  difficulties  of  the 
invention  of,  114;  infer- 
iority to  hand-loom,    114 

Power-weaving.  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of,   118 

Rearing  silkworms,  28 
Reeling   silk    fibre,    32 ;     care 
required  in,  34  ;    necessary 
processes,  35  ;    machine  for, 
35  ;   the  Crossieur,  36  ;  even- 
ness of  thread  essential,  36  ; 
Re-winding  dyed  silk,  58 
Richard  IPs  embroidered  coat, 
111 

Satin   damask   weaving,    94  ; 

working  of  damask-harness. 

96;   most  perfect  method,  98 

Satin  weaving,  invention  of,  69 

web  intersection,  69 

Serecin,  2  ;  in  the  making,  10 
Sericulture,  antiquity  of,  17; 
introduction  to  Europe,  22  ; 
spread  of,  23  ;  early  enthu- 
siasm in.  23  ;  attempts  to 
introduce  into  England.  23  ; 
great  care  needed  for.  25  ; 
Government  schools  in 
France  and  Italy  for,  19 
Shuttling,  invention  for,  115 
Silk,  importance  and  com- 
mercial value  of,  1  ;  chemi- 
cal composition  of,  2  ;  dis- 
tinct from  other  fibres,  3  ; 
source  of  supply,  4  ;  Indian 
Tusser  silk,  12  ;  history  of 
utilization  of,  17;  intro- 
duction into  Japan,  21  ; 
into  India,  21  ;  wild  silk 
cultivation.  26 ;  specific 
gravity  of,  45  ;  dyeing,  48  ; 
twisting,  59  ;  weaving,  62  ; 
use  in  China,  65  ;  introduc- 
tion    into    England,     105 ; 


Silk   (cont.) — 

trade  in,  102  ;   introduction 
into  Spain,   104 

Silk-producing  moths,  number 
of,  15  ;  the  Bombyx  Mori,  8 

Silkworm,  the,  5  ;    the  struc- 
ture and  functions  of.  6  ;  the 
growth  of,  8  ;  the  fibroin,  9  ; 
the  transformation   of,    10  ; 
Tusser  silkworms,  13  ;  natu- 
ral home  of,  17  ;   first  intro- 
duction   into    Europe,    12 
its   domestication    in    Italy 
23 ;      the    housing    of.    16 
farms  and  their  fittings.  27 
cUmate  for.  27  ;  rearing.  28 
forming     the     cocoon.     28 
diseases  of.  29 

Sizing  by  weight.  45 

Skeining,   method  of.   46 

Source  of  supply.  4 

South     Kensington     Museum, 
treasures  in,   106 

Spain,  introduction  into,  104  ; 
characteristic  designs  of,  104 

Spindle,  the.  42 

Spun  silk,   usefulness  of,   47 ; 
superiority  of,   121 

Steaming,  reason  for,  45 

Style  of  Eastern  designs,  99 

Swifts,  the,  38 

Syon  Cope,  the,  105 

Tabby  weaving,  66 
Technique  of  weaving,   62 

Damask    weaving,    94 

Throwing  processes,  37  ;  wash- 
ing, 37  ;  winding,  38  ;  con- 
struction of  Swifts,  38 ; 
the  friction  wheel,  39  ;  clean- 
ing the  thread,  41  ;  the 
throwing  frame,  42  ;  result 
after  second  throwing,  45  ; 
steaming  and  sizing,  45  ; 
skeining,  46 ;  introduction 
of  silk  throwing,  46 
Trade  in  silk,  extcnsiveness 
of.  102  , 


• « 


« t   • 


■ « 


»         4 

ft    C 


126 


INDEX 


Tram,  useiulness  of,  60 

Transformation  of  silkworm,  1 0 

Tice   John,    112 

Tusser  silkworm,  the,  12 ; 
breeding,  13 ;  silk  impreg- 
nated with  tannin,   13 

Twisting,  various  kinds  of,  59 

Utilization  of  silk,  history 
of,  17 

Varieties  of  silk  moths,  12 

Variety  in  colour  of  fibre, 
cause  of,  10 

Velvet  weaving,  inventor  un- 
known, 106 

Venice,  introduction  of  weav- 
ing into,   102 

Wardle,  Sir  Thomas,  24 


Washing  the  silk,  37 
Weaving,  a  prehistoric  art,  62  ; 
ancient  and  modem  methods 
of,  62  ;   specimen  of  ancient, 
63  ;    materials  used  in,  64  ; 
Tabby    weaving,    66 ;      the 
mechanism  of  the  loom,  66  ; 
satin-web      insertion,      69 ; 
working,   small  designs,  79  ; 
weaving  in  the  East,  99  ;  in 
India,  100  ;  in  Italy,  102 ;  in 
Venice,  102;  in  Spain,  104  ; 
in  England,  105  ;  decline  in 
18th  century,  112;    reasons 
for,  113 
W'Hang,  Emperor,  19 
Wild  silk,  cultivation  of,  2lS 
Winding    machine,    construc- 
tion   of,    38;     method    of 
procedure,  40 
Wringing  (or  scrouping),  53 


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CoaL  Its  Origin.  Method  of  Working,  and  Preparation  for  the  Harket  By  Francis  H.  V^son 
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Lectures  on  British  Commerce,  including  Finance,  Insurance,  Business  and  Industry.    By 

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The  £rw"Ulat"niCTSirCtSS^  ''t^^ 

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Pitman's  Phonography  Adapted  to  Esperanto.    By  George  Ledger is.  net. 

•Esperanto  Shorthand.      By  A.  W.  Lyndridge "• 

TYPEWRITING 

The  Junior  Typist     By  Annie  E.  Davis.     Designed  as  a  guide  through  the  elementary  stages 

aTfhe^STo  a  first  examination.     In  demy  8vo.  doth •  .U  net. 

A  It^ConSe  hi  Typewriting.    By  Mrs.  Smith-Qough.    In  large  post  4to,  qr.  doth^a^pp. 

Pitnum's  Tvoewriter  Manual    A  Practical  Guide  to  Commercial.  Literary,  Leg^,  Dramatic, 
"*Td  2ldSS  ofT^iting  work.     SUth  Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged.^  ^  In^ar^ 

PltmST's  T^i^tiM*  'E^pi^'  ■  Forty^*ight*  faaiiiie  *e3^*pies*,'  *embradn*g*  a  'v^ety  of 
'^^TT^^SKTw^k^^Snerdal,  Le^gal,  Tabular    and  General-K)n  n  cards  m  stout 

envelooe      Can  be  used  with  any  machine.     In  leap,  folio. '**  S* 

Ditt<r  PriS;d  bTobTong  note-book  for  standing  by  the  side  of  the  machme ^.&. 

??£?•    uli^JL  ISS'litrtoTfi^ttolL*  *  *M^  'th*^*  '80*  'gr'aduat^d'  «;^ci;;^  '^  over 
^*T  -SS?nTSts^TSrJ?SS?^evitd.     In  fcap.folio.     Quarts  cloth.  8a.  Si; 

Pr^SSf  iii^'o!"  Touch*  TypeWrithi*  *  Wit*h  Chart *i^d'Diig^s!iii* in  *fiw  c^fours,  Exercises 

'^iS^  S^tiSn^rtiS^B?  c!e.  Smith  ;   8*  in.  by  11  in.     Enghsh  Editunv^  entirely 

n-set  and  revised **~' 


PnetiMd Touch TfBtwrlttaic  Chut    Size  30  in.  i  40  In.    On  ttout  paper ..ii.ed.net. 

How  to  Teach  Typewriting.     Bv  Kate  Pickard,  B.A-  (Lond.)-     In  crown  4to,  doth.  .St.  net. 
Remlnfton  Typewriter  Manoai     (For  Nos.  6  and  7  and  10  and  U.)    With  numeroos 

Exercises  and  Illustrations  and  Examination  Tests.     Eighth  Edition.     In  large  post  4to. 

la.  •  cloth        *••  "^ 

1b«  Underwood  Typtwritar  MaanaL    By  A.  J.  Sylvaater.     In  large  post  4to,  qr.  cloth, 

X04  pp.     With  many  illustrations !■•  ■■  net, 

lDstmoti<Hi8  00  ttie  Remington  Typewriter.    (Not.  6  and  7.)     jj 

Instructions  aa  the  Bar-Lock.    (No.  12.) 2a 

latnujtioas  on  the  YoeL    (No.  10.) •  •  • W  "yl  V '  ;^", "  ".t 

Modem  Typewritmg  and  Manual  of  Office  Procedore.    A  Reference  Book  for  Professional 

Typists  and  Text-book  for  Students.     By  A.  E.  Morton.     FUth  Editkm.     Sixe  o' Pagt 

6J  in.  by  gi  in.     Over  100  illustrations 2t.  U. 

Practical  Typewriting  and  Biamination  GoMa.    By  A.  E.  Morton ..at.oa. 

Pitman's  »»wi«M"g  Sheet  for  the  Typewriter.     Can  be  used  with  any  cyhnder  machine.     9^ 

by  13  in. '*• 

PERIODICALS 

Pitman's  JovmaL    Subscription,  which  mav  begin  at  any  tune,  61.  8d.  per  annum,  post  fre^ 
(Estab    184a).     36  pp.    Weekly  Id.,  by  post  IW. 

Pitman's  f^^r^'nii  Weekly.    (Est.  1892).    Weekly  Id.,  by  poet  IW.  ,  «    ^ 

BoSSeepen'  MagaaineTEdited  bv  P.  J.  Mitchell.    Organ  of  the  Assodatfon  of  Book- 
keeping Teachers.     Monthly,  2d. ;  post-free  2id.  ,  »v    t  .-j 

OommerdW  Teacher.    Edited  by  W.  H.  Lord  and  H.  H.  Smith.    Organ  of  the  Incorporated 
Society  of  Commercial  Teachers.     Quarterly,  8d. ;  post-free,  4d. 

Institute  0!  Commerce  Mawaine.   Edited  by  E Rbcn  P.  Booth.   Quartaly,  24. ;  post-free,  2W. 

Phonographic  Monthly  (Est.   1897).     Illustrated.    In  royal  8vo.     Monthly  .......... W. 

Phonographic  Observer  (Est.  191 D.     Edited  by  John  Lanyon.     In  roy^  8vo.     Monthly. ^3d. 

EepoiSrs^  Journal  (Est.  1875),  with  which  is  tacorporated  the      Shorthand  Magazine. 
Sanded  in  1866.     Edited  by  H.  V.  Qaytoo.     filostrated.     In  royal  8vo.     MonthJy. 
SdL.  •    nnst  free  *    •#••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••****** 9m» 

Reported'  Maga«toe\Est.*'i88i)).*'Edit^  by  F.  J.  Hallett.    Illustrated.    In  royal  8vo. 

Monthlv, 4d. ;  post  free, 6d. ;  yearly '•!••'.:": 'J '^" 'J'"  Vck^v^«^ 

Shorthand  Teacher's  Magaime.    Organ  of  the  Society  of  Certificated  Teachers  of  Shorthand. 
Edited  by  V.  W.  E.  Brooks.     In  demy  8vo.     Quarterly,  8d. :  post  free «a. 


I  i 


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